Rest Energy Research Articles

Thermodynamic cosmology

The universe is an isolated system with constant mass-energy. The second law of thermodynamics requires that its entropy must increase over time—that is, the universe is irreversible—yet modern cosmological models presume isentropy. Entropy production due to expansion of the universe is calculable and negligible, but enormous entropy is created as matter is converted to energy and irreversibly transferred from hot stellar interiors to cold dark matter. Although the rate of entropy increase must eventually diminish, entropy production may be nearly linear at this time. Previous omission of entropy production from the cosmological equations is the source of “reversible” time and has led to the misconceptions that the universe is expanding and that a big bang is necessary. Instead, the evolution of the universe is guided by irreversible mass loss through stellar burning, which requires contraction, as is observed among our local group of galaxies.A new equation for the mass of the universe gives a result that is in good agreement with previous equations and with extrapolated densities and that leads to the conclusion that the binding energy of matter to the universe is equal to its rest energy. The microwave background radiation does not require a big bang but instead is consistent with blackbody emissions from dark matter (cavity radiation) that is warmed to 2.7 K by radiative transfer from the stars; such a balance of flux is required by the zeroth law. The evolution of the universe, being irreversible, is best described as the self-organization of a nonequilibrium system with ordering through fluctuations and dissipative structures. Complexity behavior is implicit in the dominance of matter over antimatter, the archetypical birfurcation, and in the spiral forms of the galaxies, a pattern expected for asymptotic stability.

Relation between energy and mass in Bohr's essay on his debate with einstein

The famous debate between Einstein and Bohr on the (in)consistency of quantum mechanics was described in detail by Bohr in his essay of 1949. The present article comments not on the main subject of the debate but only on the terminology that is relevant to the notions of the theory of relativity and which was used by the participants. In particular, their statement on the equivalence of mass and energy should not be taken literally. In fact, the rest energy is meant here. The authority of the two great physicists should not be misused to preserve the confusing terminology.

The Inconsistency of the Usual Galilean Transformation in Quantum Mechanics and How To Fix It

Abstract It is shown that the generally accepted statement that one cannot superpose states of different mass in non-relativistic quantum mechanics is inconsistent. It is pointed out that the extra phase induced in a moving system, which was previously thought to be unphysical, is merely the non-relativistic residue of the "twin-paradox" effect. In general, there are phase effects due to proper time differences between moving frames that do not vanish non-relativistically. There are also effects due to the equivalence of mass and energy in this limit. The remedy is to include both proper time and rest energy non-relativis-tically. This means generalizing the meaning of proper time beyond its classical meaning, and introduc­ ing the mass as its conjugate momentum. The result is an uncertainty principle between proper time and mass that is very general, and an integral role for both concepts as operators in non-relativistic physics.

Super nonlinear total energy of a particle and the theory of de Broglie wave

By using Laurent series, the velocity (≈ c) is expanded and then the total energy expression of a particle moving with high velocity is obtained. The total energy contains two parts: the rest energy and the kinetic energy. Also in this paper the theory of the de Broglie wave from the relation of the energy-momentum is obtained in which the phase velocity is still less than the velocity of light c.

Influences of the Aharonov-Bohm Flux on the Improved Soliton in a One-Dimensional Ferromagnetic Ring**The project supported in part by Natural Science Foundation of Guangdong Province and the Foundation of Zhongshan University Advanced Research Center, China

Influences of the Aharonov–Bohm flux on the improved soliton in a one-dimensional ferromagnetic ring are considered. The results show that the width, the peak, the rest energy and the effective mass of the improved soliton are dependent upon the Aharonov–Bohm flux and influences of the Aharonov–Bohm flux on the improved soliton are greater than those on the usual soliton.

X‐Ray Observations of the Seyfert Galaxy LB 1727 (1H 0419−577)

We discuss the properties of the Seyfert 1.5 galaxy LB 1727, also known as 1H 0419-577, from X-ray observations obtained by ASCA and ROSAT, along with optical observations from earlier epochs. The source flux was F2?1010?11 ergs cm-2 s-1 during the ASCA observations that were carried out during 1996 July-August, and we find only modest (20%) variations in the flux in this band within or between these observations. In contrast, a daily monitoring campaign over 1996 June-September by the ROSAT HRI instrument reveals the soft X-ray (0.1-2 keV) flux to have increased by a factor of 3. Significant variations were also observed down to timescales of ~40 ks. We find that the 2-10 keV continuum can be parameterized as a power law with a photon index ?~1.45-1.68 across ~0.7-11 keV in the rest frame. We also report the first detection of iron K? line emission in this source. Simultaneous ASCA and ROSAT data show the X-ray spectrum to steepen sharply at a rest energy ~0.75 keV, so the spectrum below this energy can be parameterized as a power law of slope ?~3.6. The X-ray emission appears to be unattenuated, and we find that ionized gas alone cannot produce such a sharp spectral break. Even allowing the presence of such gas, the simultaneous ASCA and HRI data demonstrate that the underlying continuum is required to steepen below ~0.75 keV. Thus LB 1727 is one of the few Seyferts for which we can rule out the possibility that the presence of a warm absorber is solely responsible for the spectral steepening in the soft X-ray regime. Consideration of the overall spectral energy distribution for this source indicates the presence of a pronounced XUV bump visible in optical, ultraviolet, and soft X-ray data. The source appears relatively weak in infrared emission, and so if dust exists in the source, it is not excited by the nuclear radiation.

Energy distribution of relativistic electrons in the tunneling ionization of atoms by super-intense laser radiation

We studied theoretically the influence of relativistic effects on the energy distribution of electrons in the tunneling ionization of atoms by a field of linearly polarized super-intense laser radiation. It was shown that the energy distribution of ejected electrons is determined by relativistic law though the electron kinetic energy can be less than its rest energy. The relativistic probability of ionization along the field strength decreases exponentially with the electron kinetic energy, but more quickly than in the non-relativistic case.

Influence of the fluctuations of polarization in molecular chains

We analyze the influence of the fluctuations of polarization on the soliton transfer in one-dimensional biexciton molecular chains. Important modifications appear on the model Hamiltonian with different exciton-phonon coupling constants. The parameters of the solitary excitations (length and energy) are calculated. We show that the fluctuations of dipoles will increase the soliton width and its rest energy. Finally, a brief study of the statistical properties (partition function and specific heat) is done.

Fatigue and Activity Patterns of People with Chronic Fatigue Syndrome

Although fatigue is the central symptom of people with chronic fatigue syndrome (CFS), relatively few reports in the literature examine the severity of this fatigue or the activity patterns of people with CFS. Using the Fatigue Severity Scale, the Nottingham Health Profile, the Human Activity Profile, and the Activity Record, severity of fatigue, health status, and activity patterns were investigated. People with CFS reported significantly higher levels of fatigue, poorer health status, and engagement in less energy-demanding activities ( P<0.001) than people without CFS. Those with CFS spent 16.18% (standard deviation [SD]=9.62) of their time resting compared with only 2.28% (SD=3.26) of the time spent by those without CFS ( P<0.05). Time spent in productive activities (household activities and work) was also significantly different, with the CFS group less involved ( P<0.05). This severity of fatigue and limitations in activity patterns warrant further attention. Frequent rest periods and energy conservation training may benefit these clients.

EBIT as a versatile experimental facility

The Electron Beam Ion Trap (EBIT) produces ions, confined within the electron beam, with charges ranging up to U92+ at near rest energies. This allows to study the interaction of a monoenergetic electron beam with any trapped ion to a high degree of precision via X-ray spectroscopy. The development of the EBIT into an ion (trap) source enables the possibility to perform for the first time studies of the interaction dynamics in strong fields of ions with matter where the ions carry hundreds of keV potential energy at very low kinetic energies (eV).

Mean inner potential measurements of polymer latexes by transmission electron holography

Because polymeric materials consist primarily of light elements, weak contrast is often observed when imaging polymer microstructure in a transmission electron microscope. Preferential staining of microstructural features by heavy elements such as osmium, ruthenium, or uranium is commonly used to induce amplitude contrast. Because of its ability to recover the entire exit-face electron wavefunction, transmission electron holography raises the possibility of using phase contrast to measure polymer microstructure without the need for heavy-element stains. Under kinematic scattering conditions, the phase shift, ΔΦ, imposed on an incident high-energy electron wave is given by the product of the electron-optical refractive index, neo, and the specimen thickness, t: Δφ=(2π/λ)(neo−1)t. The refractive index is related to the specimen’s mean coulombic (inner) potential Φ0: neo−1 = (e |Φ0|/E) [(E0+E)/(2E0+E)] = CEΦ0 where e is the electron charge, E is the kinetic energy of the incident electrons, E0 is the rest energy, and CE is an energy-dependent constant. Quantitative measurements of Φ0 and neo can be made using holographic phase imaging to determine from specimens of known thickness.

EFFECTS OF THE AHARONOV-BOHM FLUX TO THE SOLITON IN A ONE-DIMENSIONAL FERROMAGNETIC RING

Effects of the Aharonov-Bohm flux to the soliton in a one-dimensional ferromagnetic ring are investigated. The effects on the peak, the width, the rest energy and the effective mass of the soliton by the Aharonov-Bohm flux are shown.

Spectral series of internal friction peaks in cold-worked metals

We suggest that both the Bordoni and the Hasiguti peaks (of the type P1 and P3) be addressed in terms of one basic microscopic mechanism; the nucleation of multikink–antikink pairs in pinned dislocation segments. Correspondingly, the relevant activation energies are multiples of one quantum of energy, the single kink (antikink) rest energy, whence the possibility of ordering these internal friction peaks according to simple spectral series. Such a conclusion appears to be consistent with the experimental data.

An initial physical mechanism in the treatment of neurologic disorders with externally applied pico Tesla magnetic fields.

The recent clinical studies describing the treatment of some neurological disorders with an externally applied pico Tesla (10(-12) Tesla, or 10(-8) gauss) magnetic field are considered from a physical view point. An equation relating the intrinsic (or rest) energy of a charged particle of mass m with its energy of interaction in an externally applied magnetic field B is presented. The equation represents an initial basic physical interaction as a part of a more complex biological mechanism to explain the therapeutic effects of externally applied magnetic fields in these and other neurologic disorders.

Waves and particles—quantisation of the interval between events s0

Mathematical analyses of such basic phenomena as interference and atomic reactions lead to two very different physical models, extensive waves and particles of atomic or subatomic dimensions, which have proved immensely difficult to reconcile. In this paper, the concept of a quantised unit of interval or space-time s 0 is introduced, simply related to the rest mass m 0 of a particle, s 0 = h/ m 0c 2. This value follows directly from the relation between rest energy, mass and frequency E 0 = m 0 c 2 = hv 0 = h/ s 0. The interval s between events comprises n units s 0; s = n · s 0. Time t and distance between events are also quantised into units t 0 and r 0, but unlike s and s 0, do vary with relative velocity in accordance with relativity theory; t = n t · t 0 and r = n r · r 0. n t and n r vary with velocity but remain related to n; n = n t − n r. The de Broglie wavelength λ acquires a physical significance; it is the distance r 0 corresponding to unit interval s 0. The uncertainty principle for (time × energy) and (distance × momentum) also holds a simple meaning; it corresponds to an interval s = n · s 0 and cannot be measured to closer than one indivisible unit s 0. No physical waves need be involved. Interference and diffraction effects at the lowest intensity can require a single particle, e.g. an electron, to pass simultaneously through many widely-spaced slits. This is usually ascribed to an extensive wave nature which disappears physically on detection. With the present quantised s 0 model all interference beams comprise the same number n of s 0 units but shared differently between time and distance units n t and n r, always with n = n t − n r. Beam maxima correspond to different integral values of n t and n r. These and other fundamental difficulties which have arisen in the physical interpretation of results deduced from quantum theory are ascribed to the assumption that, unlike many fundamental properties in physics, time and space are infinitely divisible even for a single particle at rest. With the theory considered here this assumption, which otherwise leads to wave concepts, is not required; an electron at rest has as unit time t 0 = 0.80932 × 10 −20 s, with lower values for heavier particles. Units t 0 and r 0 vary with velocity in accordance with relativity. s 0 is more fundamental and for any particle the product of unit s 0 and rest-mass m 0 is constant; s 0 · m 0 = h/ c 2 = 0.73725 × 10 −50 kg · s. If rest mass is quantised so is interval s 0. There remains a fundamental scientific problem, the close relationship between mass m and frequency v or its reciprocal, the unit of time t 0 for any particle, whether at rest or in motion; m · c 2 = h · v = h/ t 0.

Supersymmetry of a relativistic electron in a uniform magnetic field.

The spectrum of a relativistic electron in a uniform magnetic field is completely analyzed using supersymmetry quantum mechanics. The Dirac Hamiltonian less the rest energy is the supersymmetric Hamiltonian. Not only the electron (or positron) states with opposite helicities, but also the electron and positron states with opposite helicities, are shown to be superpartners. The degeneracy between the electron and positron ground states, as well as excited states with the same helicities, is shown to be due to the spontaneous breaking of symmetry under the combined operation of charge conjugation and time reversal.

Simulation of relativistic jets

Superluminal motion is often observed in extragalactic jets, but few simulations take into account the nature of relativistic fluids. Here, I have studied the behaviour of steady-state, supersonic jets propagating with a relativistic bulk velocity through a pressure gradient, similar to the observed atmospheres of extragalactic radio source hosts. The simulations were carried out in axisymmetry, using a Godunov-type fluid code in Lagrangian coordinates. The equation of state for a two-component ‘Synge gas’ was employed to close the system of conservation equations. It was found that initially hot jets (i.e. thermal energy of particles greater than rest energy) show large increases in bulk Lorentz factor during adiabatic cooling. In simulations where the jet experienced a period of significant over-pressure, and a resultant over-expansion, the familiar diamond-like structure of incident and reflected oblique shocks was seen. The final wavelength of the associated oscillations was revealed to be a function of initial Mach number and not temperature. It was also noted that, due to increased dissipation, the shock strength decays faster from one oscillation to the next as the initial temperature of the jet is raised.

Effect of a strong magnetic field on energy output of ?n?-reactions

where (A,Z) indicates a nucleus with mass number A and charge Z. According to [1] this type of reaction is the final stage in pycnonuclear reactions, by means of which absolute equilibrium is reached in the dense matter of white dwarfs and neutron stars. The possibility that interiors of superdense astrophysical objects support magnetic fields able to exert a quantifying effect on the relativistic electrons of the degenerate electron-nuclear plasma raises the problem of calculating their influence on pycnonuclear reactions. We have previously [2] computed the equilibrium thermodynamic and nuclear parameters for cold, dense electronnuclear matter in a strong magnetic field. As in that work [2], by neglecting the kinetic energy of the nuclei and their interactions when compared with their rest energy, and by assuming the electron gas is highly degenerate and ideal, we can write the energy density of the system as

THE PROPERTIES OF RADIATION NEAR THE BLACK HOLE'S HORIZON AND THE SEDOND LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS

By considering a gedankenexperiment of adiabatically lowering a box containing matter with rest energy E and entropy S to a black hole, Bekenstein claimed that the necessary condition for the validity of the generalized second law of thermodynamics is S/E ≤ 2πR, where R is the effective radius of the box, Unruh and Wald claimed that this condition is not necessary but the acceleration radiation can guarantee the generalized second law. In this paper, we point out that Unruh and Wald's conclusion does not hold because the Hawking radiation near the horizon is not thermal. Bekenstein's conclusion also does not hold because the thin box approximation is not correct near the horizon. Neither Hawking radiation nor S/E ≤ 2πR. can guarantee the second law. We have sufficient reasons to conjecture that the gravitation can influence the state equation of matter. For radiation, the usual state equation ρ = αT4 and s =4/3αT3 do not hold in the strong gravitation field, e.g., near theblackhole's horizon. We have derived the state equation for radiation near ths horizon and find that it is very different from that in flat spacetime. The second law may be valid if some restrictions on one parameter of the state equation are imbo-sed. As a corollary, an upper bound on S/E which resembles the Bekenatein's result is found.

Properties of radiation near the black-hole horizon and the second law of thermodynamics.

By considering a gedankenexperiment of adiabatically lowering a box containing matter with rest energy E and entropy S to a black hole, Bekenstein claimed that the necessary condition for the validity of the generalized second law of thermodynamics is S/E ≤ 2πR, where R is the effective radius of the box, Unruh and Wald claimed that this condition is not necessary but the acceleration radiation can guarantee the generalized second law. In this paper, we point out that Unruh and Wald's conclusion does not hold because the Hawking radiation near the horizon is not thermal. Bekenstein's conclusion also does not hold because the thin box approximation is not correct near the horizon. Neither Hawking radiation nor S/E ≤ 2πR. can guarantee the second law. We have sufficient reasons to conjecture that the gravitation can influence the state equation of matter. For radiation, the usual state equation ρ = αT4 and s =4/3αT3 do not hold in the strong gravitation field, e.g., near theblackhole's horizon. We have derived the state equation for radiation near ths horizon and find that it is very different from that in flat spacetime. The second law may be valid if some restrictions on one parameter of the state equation are imbo-sed. As a corollary, an upper bound on S/E which resembles the Bekenatein's result is found.