Response Styles Theory Research Articles

Rumination, negative cognition, and their interactive effects on depressed mood.

Response styles theory posits that rumination represents a trait vulnerability to depression. Recent evidence has suggested that rumination predicts changes in depression more strongly among individuals with high levels of negative cognition. Three studies evaluated this model of interactive vulnerabilities. Study 1 provided empirical support for the distinction between rumination and negative cognitive content. The next 2 studies investigated the interactive model in the laboratory. Study 2 randomly assigned participants to either ruminate or distract following a sad mood induction. This study found that rumination was more strongly associated with dysphoria among individuals who report high levels of negative cognition. Similarly, Study 3 found that rumination and negative cognition interact to predict changes in dysphoria across a no-task delay period following a sad mood induction. These studies provide support for an interactive model in which rumination amplifies the deleterious effects of negative cognition.

Gender Differences in Selective Media Use for Mood Management and Mood Adjustment

Mood management theory has found empirical support but was challenged by gender-typed selections and exposure to negative content. These challenges are addressed with response style theory and the mood adjustment approach. A secondary data analysis and original experimental data serve to test hypotheses. As expected, after a mood-impacting experience, men tend to distract themselves with absorbing messages, whereas women tend to ruminate the experience and thus prefer messages with low absorption potential. When anticipating a mood-impacting activity, men tend to distract themselves right before it by selecting absorbing content, whereas women focus on it and prefer less absorbing messages.

Cognitive Theories of Depression in Children and Adolescents: A Conceptual and Quantitative Review

This paper quantitatively reviews longitudinal studies examining three central cognitive theories of depression--Beck's theory, Hopelessness theory, and the Response Styles theory--among children (age 8-12) and adolescents (age 13-19). We examine the effect sizes in 20 longitudinal studies, which investigated the relation between the cognitive vulnerability-stress interaction and its association with prospective elevations in depression after controlling for initial levels of depressive symptoms. The results of this review suggest that across theories there is a small relation between the vulnerability-stress interaction and elevations in depression among children (pr=0.15) and a moderately larger effect (pr=0.22) among adolescents. Despite these important findings, understanding their implications has been obscured by critical methodological, statistical, and theoretical limitations that bear on cognitive theories of depression. The evidence base has been limited by poor measurement of cognitive vulnerabilities and over reliance on null hypothesis significance testing; these have contributed to a field with many gaps and inconsistencies. The relative paucity of research on developmental applications of such theories reveals that surprisingly little is known about their hypothesized etiologic mechanisms in children and adolescents. Ways to advance knowledge in the area of cognitive theories of depression among youth are discussed.

When does the Gender Difference in Rumination Begin? Gender and Age Differences in the Use of Rumination by Adolescents

A cross-sectional non-clinical sample of 1,218 adolescents, aged 10–17 years, completed measures of stress, rumination, and depression to allow tests of the response style theory of S. Nolen-Hoeksema [J Res Adolesc 4:519–534, 1994] in adolescents, in particular whether increasing levels of stress and rumination in early adolescence are predictive of the onset of the gender difference in depression. Overall, females reported higher levels of stress, rumination, and depression than males. The onset of the gender differences in stress and depression occurred at age 13 years, and for rumination one year earlier at 12 years. Significantly, also from 13 years, rumination explained the gender difference in depression by showing that it significantly mediated the effect of gender on depression. Gender moderated the rumination to depression relationship; specifically the association was stronger for females than males. Developmental differences were noted in that rumination significantly mediated between stress and depression earlier in the age range for females than males. Results supported many of the predictions of Nolen-Hoeksema’s model of the emergence of a gender difference in adolescent depression.

Are Neuroticism, Cognitive Vulnerabilities and Self–Esteem Overlapping or Distinct Risks for Depression? Evidence from Exploratory and Confirmatory Factor Analyses

Cognitive theories of depression (e.g., the hopelessness theory, Beck's cognitive theory, and the response styles theory) as well as trait neuroticism and low self–esteem have been shown to contribute to the onset and maintenance of depression. It is unknown the extent to which these cognitive and personality vulnerability factors overlap or are distinct. Two independent factor analytic studies addressed the degree of construct independence using measures from the three cognitive theories along with trait neuroticism, self–esteem, and depressive symptoms. Principal factor analysis from Study 1 (n = 950) revealed four discriminable factors. Three of the factors corresponded to each theory's vulnerability: negative cognitive style, dysfunctional attitudes, and rumination. A fourth factor consisted of depressive symptoms, self–esteem, neuroticism. Confirmatory factor analysis from Study 2 (n = 431) showed that the best fit for the data was a four factor model that replicated the exploratory factor analyses.

Rumination and interpersonal dependency: Explaining women's vulnerability to depression.

Abstract Women are twice as likely as men to suffer from a major depressive episode. Reasons for this gender difference in propensity for depression are not completely understood, although a number of explanations have been articulated. In this article we focus on two constructs that have been linked to gender differences in depression - ruminative cognitive style and interpersonal dependency. Ruminative cognitive style refers to the tendency to respond to depressed or dysphoric mood with repetitive thoughts and behaviours that focus attention on the meaning and consequences of the depressed mood (Nolen-Hoeksema, 1991). Interpersonal dependency reflects an investment in relationships and communion. We propose a theory of how these constructs interact to increase women's propensity to develop depression. Gender difference in rates of major depression is a consistent research finding, with women being about twice as likely to suffer from a major depressive episode as men (Kessler, McGonagle, Swartz, Blazer, & Nelson, 1993; Nolen-Hoeksema, 1990, 1995; Weissman & Klerman, 1977). This difference in rates of depression in women relative to men emerges in mid-puberty and remains throughout adulthood (Daley & Hammen, 2002; Daley, Hammen, & Rao, 2000; Kessler et al., 1993; Nolen-Hoeksema & Girgus, 1994). women are more vulnerable to depression than men is not completely understood, although various biological, social, and psychological explanations have been offered. Hormonal changes during puberty, childbearing years, and menopause, for example, are suspected to have some connection to increased depression in women (Denmark & Paludi, 1993; Formanek & Gurian, 1987; Seeman, 1997). Societal gender inequity and the oppression of women (e.g., poverty, lower social status, vulnerability to sexual and physical abuse) have also been linked to adverse mental health outcomes for women (Murphy, 2003). There are many plausible reasons and explanations as to why women are more vulnerable to depression than men, and no one explanation can reasonably account for this difference. In this article we explore and focus specifically on two constructs that have been linked to gender differences in depression - ruminative cognitive style and interpersonal dependency. We first review research outlining the relation between depression and ruminative cognitive style and between depression and interpersonal dependency. Although these topics have been reviewed previously, we contribute to this literature as we also propose a theory of how these constructs interact to produce a woman's increased propensity to develop depression. Theories of gender differences in depression have historically focused on individual variables without considering interactions between variables, and investigators have stressed the importance of examining integrated models (Nolen-Hoeksema, 1991). Ruminative Response Style Nolen-Hoeksema proposed that gender differences in depression could be accounted for by differences in the ways in which women and men respond to depressed or dysphoric mood (Nolen-Hoeksema, 1987, 1991, 2001; Nolen-Hoeksema & Jackson, 2001). Response Style Theory (RST) posits that women are more prone to ruminate in response to depressed or dysphoric mood than are men, whereas men are more prone to distraction in response to depressed or dysphoric mood than women (Nolen-Hoeksema, Larson, & Grayson, 1999). Rumination can be defined as repetitive thoughts and behaviours that focus individuals' attention inwardly on the symptoms of their depressed mood as well as on the meaning and consequences of these symptoms. Examples of rumination include focusing on how depressed and unmotivated one feels (I feel so down that I have no energy or interest to do anything), wondering why one is feeling so down and depressed (What is wrong with me? Why do I feel so sad?), and worrying about the consequences of the symptoms of depression (Things will never work out for me). …

The response styles theory of depression: A test of specificity and causal mediation

This prospective study tested the diathesis-stress and causal mediation components of the response styles theory of depression. In addition, it examined whether rumination predicts increases in anxious as well as depressive symptoms. At Time 1, 87 college students completed measures of rumination, hopelessness, depressive symptoms, and anxious symptoms. Participants also completed measures of hopelessness, depressive symptoms, and anxious symptoms at three time points later in the semester: immediately after receiving their most difficult midterm exam grade (Time 2), 4–8 hours later (Time 3), and 4 days later (Time 4). Regardless of exam outcome, the tendency to ruminate in response to depressed mood was associated with: (1) increases in anxious symptoms between Time 1 and Time 3; and (2) increases in both anxious and depressive symptoms between Time 1 and Time 4. In addition, the relationship between rumination and increases in both depressive and anxious symptoms was mediated by hopelessness. In other words, individuals with a ruminative response style exhibited increases in both depressive and anxious symptoms because they exhibited increases in hopelessness.

A Test of the Integration of the Response Styles and Social Support Theories of Depression in Third and Seventh Grade Children

Abstract The goal of the current study was to test the integration of the response styles and social support theories of depression in third and seventh grade children. Two hundred and sixty children completed measures assessing response styles (e.g., rumination, distraction, and problem-solving), social support, and depressive symptoms. In line with the response styles theory, third and seventh graders who exhibited a ruminative response style reported higher levels of depressive symptoms than those who did not exhibit such a style. In addition, seventh graders who exhibited a tendency to engage in either distractive or problem-solving responses to depressed mood reported lower levels of depressive symptoms than seventh graders who did not exhibit such tendencies. Last, in line with hypotheses, in seventh graders, (a) the relationship between rumination and depressive symptoms was partially mediated by social support and (b) the relationship between low social support and depressive symptoms was partiall...

The Stability of the Response Styles Questionnaire Rumination Scale in a Sample of Patients with Major Depression

Response style theory (RST; S. Nolen-Hoeksema, 1991a) posits that ruminative response style (RRS) to depression prolongs and intensifies depressed mood, maintains a current depressive episode, and increases the likelihood of a new (or recurrent) depressive episode. The goal of this investigation was to examine the relative (i.e., retest reliability) and absolute (i.e., mean level change) stability of self- and symptom-focused RRS measured by the Response Style Questionnaire (RSQ; S. Nolen-Hoeksema, 1991b) with 110 patients being treated for major depression. In all patients, both kinds of RRS showed relative stability. In remitted patients, neither kind of RRS showed absolute stability. In currently depressed patients, only self-focused RRS showed absolute stability. On the basis of these results it is proposed that symptom-focused RRS may intensify depressed mood and current depressive episode, as well as predispose to recurrence, whereas self-focused RRS may prolong a current depression and increase the likelihood of a new depressive episode.

Rumination and Distraction Among Chronic Depressives in Treatment: A Structural Equation Analysis

Response Styles Theory hypothesizes that rumination about one's symptoms amplifies and prolongs depressed mood, whereas distraction has the opposite effect. Response styles are also hypothesized to be trait-like dispositions. The generalizability of Response Styles Theory, as well as the linkages that may account for correlations between rumination, distraction, and depression, were explored with structural equation modeling in a sample of chronically depressed individuals undergoing treatment with psychotherapy, medication, or combination treatment. Results were not consistent with the hypotheses that rumination or distraction have causal effects on recovery from depression or that depression causes rumination or distraction. Rather a common cause or causes appeared to account for the correlations between these variables. Stability of rumination and distraction was low over a 12-week period. Implications of the findings are discussed.

Distinguishing between ruminative and distractive responses in dysphoric college students: does indication of past depression make a difference?

Abstract In this study, a model of affectivity as a mediator of the influence of ruminative and distractive response styles (Nolen-Hoeksema, 1991) on depressive symptoms and life satisfaction is proposed and examined among a self-reported group of never-depressed (n=78) and previously-depressed college students (n=66). As predicted, significant differences were found between the two groups on measures of negative affectivity, depressive symptoms, and life satisfaction. Results of conducting path analyses indicated important differences between the two groups in how affectivity mediated the link between response styles and psychological adjustment. For never-depressed students, positive affectivity was found to mediate the link between distraction and psychological adjustment. For previously-depressed students, the link between rumination and depressive symptoms was found to be fully mediated by negative affectivity, whereas the link between distraction and life satisfaction was found to be fully mediated by positive affectivity. The present findings are discussed in terms of response style theory.

Rumination reconsidered: A psychometric analysis.

In an attempt to eliminate similar item content as an alternative explanation for the relation between depression and rumination, a secondary analysis was conducted using the data from S. Nolen-Hoeksema, J. Larson, and C. Grayson (1999). After constructing a measure of rumination unconfounded with depression content, support for a two factor model of rumination was found. These analyses indicate that the 2 components, reflective pondering and brooding, differentially relate to depression in terms of predictive ability and gender difference mediation. The results presented here support the general premise of Nolen-Hoeksema's Response Styles Theory (S. Nolen-Hoeksema 1987) that rumination can contribute to more depressive symptoms and to the gender difference in depression, but suggest important refinements of the theory. Such refinements include the need to differentiate between the reflective pondering component of rumination and the brooding component in rumination research.

Ruminative Response Style and the Severity of Seasonal Affective Disorder

Research generally has supported the hypothesis of the Response Style Theory that a ruminative response style is associated with a greater severity of depression episodes. However, no published research has applied this theory to seasonal affective disorder (SAD). We examined the relationship between response style and severity of winter symptoms in a longitudinal study of individuals previously diagnosed with SAD. Eighteen participants kept accounts of their mood and their responses to mood for 14 consecutive days in the fall. Statistical modeling of these data yielded measures of response style for each participant. Ruminative response style, but not distracting response style, predicted symptom severity in winter, controlling for severity in the fall. As suggested by the Dual Vulnerability Hypothesis of SAD, ruminative response style interacted with fall vegetative symptom severity to predict winter nonvegetative symptom severity. Results also suggest that distracting response style may consist of two different types of response.

Response Styles Theory: Downward Extension to Children

Response Styles Theory: Downward Extension to Children

Response Styles Theory: Downward Extension to Children

Describes partial support found for the downward extension of Nolen-Hoeksema's response styles theory of depression to preadolescents (N = 201). A self-report measure of response styles was developed. Evidence for the multidimensionality and independence of rumination and distraction is provided, as well as support for the reliability and validity of the new measure. Results supported 2 primary tenets of the theory: sex differences in ruminatory tendencies and associations between response styles and self-reported depressive symptoms. Implications of the findings for understanding depression in preadolescents are discussed, in addition to directions for advancing this knowledge area.

Response styles among patients with minor depression and dysthymia in primary care.

Ruminative responses to depression have predicted duration and severity of depressive symptoms. The authors examined how response styles change over the course of treatment for depression and as a function of type of treatment. They also examined the ability of response styles to predict treatment outcome and status at follow-up. Primary care patients (n = 96) with dysthymia or minor depression were randomly assigned to problem-solving therapy, paroxetine, or placebo. Patients' depressive symptoms and rumination, but not distraction, decreased over time. Pretreatment rumination and distraction were associated with more depressive symptoms at the conclusion of treatment; the latter finding was not consistent with the response style theory of depression. Results are discussed in terms of their implications for this theory.

反応スタイル理論(Response Styles Theory）の研究動向と課題

反応スタイル理論(Response Styles Theory）の研究動向と課題

An examination of the response styles theory of depression in third- and seventh-grade children: a short-term longitudinal study.

The goal of this study was to test the response styles theory of depression in a sample of 3rd- and 7th-grade children. In addition, we examined whether the relationship between rumination and increases in depressive symptoms is mediated by hopelessness and low self-esteem. The procedure involved an initial assessment in which depressive symptoms, response styles, hopelessness, and self-esteem were assessed. The procedure also involved a follow-up assessment, 6 weeks later, in which depressive symptoms, hopelessness, and self-esteem were reassessed. Children with a ruminative response style exhibited increases in depressive symptoms over the 6-week period. In addition, the relationship between rumination and increases in depressive symptoms was mediated by both hopelessness and low self-esteem. Last, contrary to our hypotheses, neither distraction nor problem-solving response styles predicted decreases in depressive symptoms over the course of the study.

The Impact of Anxiety Sensitivity, Bodily Expectations, and Cultural Beliefs on Menstrual Symptom Reporting: A Test of the Menstrual Reactivity Hypothesis

According to the menstrual reactivity hypothesis, certain women report more severe as well as a greater number of menstrual symptoms due to accurate reports of physical symptoms and expectations (e.g., cultural beliefs, sex roles, bodily sensations). To test this hypothesis and to further examine the role that anxiety sensitivity plays in menstrual symptom reporting, women varying in levels of anxiety sensitivity completed measures of sex role socialization, menstrual attitudes, bodily preoccupations, affect, and fear of illness. To assess psychophysiological reactivity and the applicability of response styles theory to individuals varying in anxiety sensitivity, skin conductance was measured as participants engaged in a rumination or distraction task. In addition, participants completed a modified Stroop task consisting of anxiety, menstrual, and neutral words followed by a surprise recognition task. Retrospectively and prospectively, women high in anxiety sensitivity consistently reported more severe menstrual symptoms. High anxiety sensitivity women also reported preoccupation with bodily sensations and more negative attitudes toward illness, but did not differ from low anxiety sensitivity women on measures of menstrual attitudes or sex role socialization. While engaging in a rumination task, high anxiety sensitivity women exhibited more frequent skin conductance responses and greater skin conductance response magnitude than low anxiety sensitivity women. In addition, after the rumination task, high anxiety sensitivity women recognized more anxiety-related words from the Stroop task. Menstrual cycle phase had less of an impact than anxiety sensitivity level on the current results. Implications of these results for the menstrual reactivity hypothesis and rumination are discussed.

Cognitive Vulnerability to Depression

Cognitive Vulnerability to Depression. Rick E. Ingram, Jeanne Miranda, and Zindel V. Segal. New York: Guilford Press (www.guilford.com). 1998, 330 pp., $40.00 (hardcover). Primarily for clinical scientists and students in doctoral research programs, this landmark volume examines the most current and comprehensive theories of depression vulnerability and evaluates the existing empirical landscape. The authors, each an accomplished researcher in his or her own right, have collaborated to investigate how the vast and often conflicting literature on depressive psychopathology can be understood from a methodologically sensitive vantage point. More than 60 studies relevant to depression vulnerability are examined and compared. Results from these studies are integrated into a detailed developmental model of depression vulnerability. This book represents a true milestone in the application of scientific rigor and clinical insight to the problem of depression, and should not be missed by anyone serious about treating or understanding depression. A BRIEF OVERVIEW Chapter 1 offers a refreshing short course in experimental cognitive science, including such central concepts as representation, learning, information processing, and behavioral meditation. Historical background is traced from Wundt to Bandura, Bower, Mandler, Anderson, and beyond. Cognition is very broadly defined, with an emphasis on the interaction of multiple systems. A taxonomic categorization of experimental cognitive constructs is presented in a highly organized fashion. Good coverage is given to concepts such as neural networks, capacity limitations, automatic versus effortful processing, levels of processing, selective information processing, schema-driven processing, cognitive availability vs. cognitive accessibility, and situated cognition. Chapter 2 provides a good general overview of current knowledge about depression. Background is presented about epidemiology, prevelance, course, subtypes, demographics, genetics, comorbidity, influences of social support, and responses to treatment. This chapter seems entirely appropriate for an introductory graduate course in general psychopathology. Chapter 3 delves more deeply into cognitive theories of depression. Theories are didactically categorized according to their emphasis on cognitive products (e.g., Rational Emotive Behavioral theory, Learned Helplessness/Hopelessness theory), cognitive operations (e.g., Self-focused Attention theory, Ruminative Response Style theory), or cognitive structures and propositions (e.g., Cognitive Schema theory, Anaclitic/Introjective & Autonomous/Sociotropic typologies, Self-Worth Contingency theory, Cognitive Network theories, and Interacting Cognitive Subsystems theory). The descriptions and explanations of these theories are detailed and well articulated, covering conceptual issues, empirical status and remaining controversies. Consistent themes among all the theories are highlighted, including cognitive distortion, the concept of self, and the casual status of cognition. This chapter provides an excellent overview of the present status of cognitive theory in the study of depression. Chapter 4 provides a masterful and epistemologically rigorous overview of the more general concept of vulnerability in psychopathology. After tracing the most important historical developments in the concept of vulnerability, this chapter identifies the essential core features, scientific assumptions, and relational concepts that are crucial to the understanding of vulnerability. In a thorough analysis of the constructs of risk, stress, resilence, and latent variables, the authors argue that vulnerability is best viewed as the final common pathway through which risk factors (including stress) are expressed in a disorder. The authors recommend that by more precisley specifying the casual pathways of vulnerability hypotheses that are scientifically falsifiable. …