Responses Of Pigeons Research Articles

Two Doses of Zn Induced Different Microbiota Profiles and Dietary Zinc Supplementation Affects the Intestinal Microbial Profile, Intestinal Microarchitecture and Immune Response in Pigeons.

We aimed to explore the effects of two different doses of Zn on the fecal microbiota in pigeons and the correlation between these effects and intestinal immune status. Zn doses affected pigeon growth performance, and pigeons in the T60 (60 mg/kg Zn) and T90 (90 mg/kg Zn) groups exhibited higher villus height and crypt depth in duodenum and ileum compared to the control group, respectively. Supplementation with Zn increased the expression of the IL8, CD798, TJP and NKTR genes (p < 0.05), while enhancing serum immunoglobulin (Ig) G, IgM, and IgA concentrations compared to the control pigeons (p < 0.05). T60 treatment reduced relative Actinobacteriota abundance, while Lactobacillus spp. abundance was highest in the T90 group compared to the two other groups. The core functional genera significantly associated with immune indices in these pigeons were Rhodococcus erythropolis and Lactobacillus ponti. Our findings will help facilitate the application of dietary Zn intake in pig production.

Neurological examination of clinically healthy pigeons (Columba livia domestica), mute swans (Cygnus olor), common buzzards (Buteo buteo), common kestrels (Falco tinnunculus) and northern goshawks (Accipiter gentilis).

A neurological examination is essential for determining the localisation of neurological lesions. However, in avian species, quantitative data regarding the practicability and feasibility of neurological tests are very limited. Therefore, the aim of this study was to establish normative data for the neurological examination of clinically healthy birds of different species. Forty-two domestic and feral pigeons (Columba livia domestica), 42 mute swans (Cygnus olor), 12 common buzzards (Buteo buteo), 24 common kestrels (Falco tinnunculus) and six northern goshawks (Accipiter gentilis) were examined. All birds underwent a predefined neurological examination. Interobserver variations between three examiners were investigated in 11 pigeons and 11 mute swans. All postural reaction tests, except for the drop and flap reaction in mute swans, provoked a consistent response in pigeons and mute swans, whereas postural reaction tests of the legs in raptors were often not performable. Cranial nerve tests and most of the spinal reflexes revealed variable responses in all birds. The gastrocnemius reflex was not provokable in any bird. Interobserver agreement was almost perfect (Gwet's AC1 coefficient ≥0.81) for 16 of 21 parameters in the examination in pigeons and for 14 of 21 in mute swans. The inclusion of free-ranging birds, which were not used to handling and for which limited information regarding age, history of previous diseases, etc. was available, may have influenced the results. The normative neurological examination data provided in this study will help improve clinicians' interpretation of neurological examinationresults in the respective bird species.

Electroretinographic study of the magnetic compass in European robins.

Migratory birds are known to be sensitive to external magnetic field (MF). Much indirect evidence suggests that the avian magnetic compass is localized in the retina. Previously, we showed that changes in the MF direction could modulate retinal responses in pigeons. In the present study, we performed similar experiments using the traditional model animal to study the magnetic compass, European robins. The photoresponses of isolated retina were recorded using ex vivo electroretinography (ERG). Blue- and red-light stimuli were applied under an MF with the natural intensity and two MF directions, when the angle between the plane of the retina and the field lines was 0° and 90°, respectively. The results were separately analysed for four quadrants of the retina. A comparison of the amplitudes of the a- and b-waves of the ERG responses to blue stimuli under the two MF directions revealed a small but significant difference in a- but not b-waves, and in only one (nasal) quadrant of the retina. The amplitudes of both the a- and b-waves of the ERG responses to red stimuli did not show significant effects of the MF direction. Thus, changes in the external MF modulate the European robin retinal responses to blue flashes, but not to red flashes. This result is in a good agreement with behavioural data showing the successful orientation of birds in an MF under blue, but not under red illumination.

The effects of ratio and interval schedules on the location variability of pecking responses in pigeons: Application of Bayesian statistical model

Many studies have investigated how variability in animal behavior is induced by different reinforcement schedules. However, the animal species and experimental settings have varied between these studies. The present study investigated the variability of pigeons’ pecking location to operandum under fixed-ratio, fixed-interval, variable-ratio, and variable-interval schedules. A circular response area that was 22.4 cm in diameter was used so that the pecking responses would be effective over a wide range. Pigeons were exposed to a multiple-ratio yoked-interval schedule; the pairs of schedules were fixed-ratio and fixed-interval or variable-ratio and variable-interval. We used a Bayesian statistical approach to probabilistically evaluate the effects of reinforcement schedules on the variability. Bayesian statistical analysis showed the following: (1) interval schedules provided greater variability than did the ratio schedules under the same interreinforcement intervals, (2) fixed schedules provided greater variability than did variable schedules for both the ratio and interval schedule requirements, (3) the larger schedule requirement generated greater variability under the fixed schedules but this effect was not observed on the variable schedules, and (4) the variability did not change as time elapsed in each trial. These results suggested that each reinforcement schedule has a specific effect on the variability of the response location.

Host immune responses of pigeons infected with Newcastle disease viruses isolated from pigeons

Newcastle disease (ND), affecting over 250 bird species, is caused by the Newcastle disease virus (NDV). ND is one of the leading causes of morbidity and mortality in pigeons. Most studies investigating NDV in pigeons have focused on the epidemiology and pathogenicity of the virus. However, the host immune responses in pigeons infected with NDVs remains largely unclear. In this study, we investigated the host immune responses in pigeons infected with two NDV stains, a pigeon paramyxovirus type 1(PPMV-1) strain, GZH14, and a genotype II virus, KP08. Although no mortality was observed upon infection with either virus, obvious neurological effects were observed in the GZH14-infected pigeons but not in the KP08-infected pigeons. Both viruses could replicate in the examined tissues, namely brain, lung, spleen, trachea, kidney, and bursa of Fabricius. The expression level of RIG-I, IL-6, IL-1β, CCL5, and IL-8 were up-regulated by both viruses in the brain, lung and spleen at 3 and 7 days post-infection. Notably, these proinflammatory cytokines and chemokines showed more intense expression in the brain, when induced by the GZH14 strain than with the KP08 strain. These results indicate that the intense inflammatory responses induced by PPMV-1 in the brain may be a critical determinant of neurological symptoms in pigeons infected with PPMV-1. Our study provides new insight into the pathogenicity of PPMV-1 in pigeons attributable to the host immune responses.

Immuno-pathological response of pigeons to challenge infection of Newcastle disease virus (NDV)

Immuno-pathological response of pigeons to challenge infection of Newcastle disease virus (NDV)

Enhanced Tracking System Based on Micro Inertial Measurements Unit to Measure Sensorimotor Responses in Pigeons

The ability to orientate and navigate is critically important for the survival of all migratory birds and other animals. Progress in understanding the mechanisms underlying these capabilities and, in particular, the importance of sensitivity to the Earth’s magnetic field has, thus far, been constrained by the limited number of techniques available for the analysis of often complex behavioral responses. Methods used to track the movements of animals, such as birds, have varied depending on the degree of accuracy required. Most conventional approaches involve the use of a camera for recording and then measuring an animal’s head movements in response to a variety of external stimuli, such as changes in magnetic fields. However, video tracking analysis (VTA) will generally provide only a 2D tracking of head angle. Moreover, such a video analysis can only provide information about movements when the head is in view of the camera. In order to overcome these limitations, the novel invention reported here utilizes a lightweight ( $20.3\times 12.7\times 3$ mm) system can be programmed and calibrated to provide measurements of the three rotational angles (roll, pitch, and yaw) simultaneously, eliminating any drift, i.e., the movement of the pigeon’s head is determined by detecting and estimating the directions of motion at all angles (even those outside the defined areas of tracking). Using an existing VTA approach as a baseline for comparison, it is demonstrated that the IMU technology can comprehensively track a pigeon’s normal head movements with greater precision and in all three axes.

Pigeons perform poorly on a midsession reversal task without rigid temporal regularity.

Animals make surprising anticipatory and perseverative errors when faced with a midsession reversal of reinforcer contingencies on a choice task with highly predictable stimulus-time relationships. In the current study, we asked whether pigeons would anticipate changes in reinforcement when the reinforcer contingencies for each stimulus were not fixed in time. We compared the responses of pigeons on a simultaneous choice task when the initially correct stimulus was randomized or alternated across sessions. Pigeons showed more errors overall compared with the typical results of a standard midsession reversal procedure, and they did not show the typical anticipatory errors prior to the contingency reversal. Probe tests that manipulated the spacing between trials also suggested that timing of the session exerted little control of pigeons' behavior. The temporal structure of the experimental session thus appears to be an important determinant for animals' use of time in midsession reversal procedures.

The change in heat shock protein expression in avermectin induced neurotoxicity of the pigeon (Columba livia) both in vivo and in vitro

The expression of heat shock proteins (Hsps) commonly increases to provide neuroprotection when brain tissues are under stress conditions. Residues of avermectins (AVMs) have neurotoxic effects on a number of non-target organisms. The aim of this study was to investigate the effects of AVM exposure on the expression levels of Hsp 60, Hsp 70 and Hsp 90 for pigeon (Columba livia) neurons both in vivo and in vitro. The results showed that in general, the mRNA and protein levels of Hsps were increased in treated groups relative to control groups after AVM exposure for 30d, 60d and 90d in the cerebrum, cerebellum and optic lobe in vivo. However, AVM exposure had no significant effects on the transcription expression of Hsps for 90d in the optic lobe and decreased the translation expression of Hsps significantly for 90d in the optic lobe. In vitro, the LC50 of avermectin for King pigeon neurons is between 15μgL−1 and 20μgL−1. Following AVM (2.5–20μgL−1) exposure, the mRNA expression of the 3 Hsps was up-regulated to different degrees. Compared with the control groups, a significant decrease, a remarkable increase and a non-significant change was found in the protein expression of Hsp 60, Hsp 70 and Hsp 90 separately following AVM (2.5–20μgL−1) exposure. Based on these results, we conclude that AVM exposure can induce a protective stress response in pigeons by means of promoting the mRNA and protein expression of Hsps under in vivo and in vitro conditions, thus easing the neurotoxic effects of AVM to some extent.

A study for the influence of mosquitoes saliva on immunity of a laboratory animal (pigeon) to control infectious diseases.

The saliva of blood feeding arthropods has a variety of substances that are responsible for the success of blood meal. Repeated bites of mosquitoes stimulate immune responses to salivary antigen in the vertebrate host. In this study group of 4-pigeons were exposed to frequent bites of groups of Culex pipiense and Anopheles pharoensis (100 female mosquitos per pigeon, 6 times in 18 weeks) and the biting rate were estimated. The biting rate of mosquitoes on pigeons decreased through different attempts. Group of 12 different clean pigeons are used as control pigeons (6 pigeons for each mosquito’s species) where one pigeon is exposed to the bites of 100 mosquitoes of one species 6 times in 18 weeks and the biting rate were calculated. The rate is relatively constant. The rate decreased in the case of the frequent bites may be due to the immunomodulative substances in mosquito saliva which stimulate immune responses in pigeons. Pigeons previously bitten frequently by Culex pipiense (Cx. sp.) and Anopheles pharoensis (An. sp.) mosquitoes are exposed once to bites of 100 female mosquitoes of the other mosquito species. The rate of feeding was calculated .This rate was increased. This increasing in the rate may be due to little cross- reactivity between the two mosquitoes species. Further investigations are recommended to study the effect of mosquito saliva on human immune responses to evaluate the mosquito salivary proteins as vaccines for mosquitoes-borne diseases and also for decreasing or prevent the biting of mosquitoes.

Effects of Sleep Deprivation on Measures of the Febrile Reaction and the Recovery of Somatovisceral Functions and Sleep in Endotoxemia

Electroencephalographic methods were used to study the effects of total sleep deprivation on thermoregulatory measures of the fever response in pigeons (Columba livia): brain temperature, peripheral vasomotor reactions, thoracic muscle contractile activity, and the recovery of somatic functions and the time characteristics of waking and sleep in lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced endotoxemia. Sleep deprivation during the period in which the quantity of slow-wave sleep increased on administration of LPS induced decreases in the latent period of fever onset and in the duration of fever, along with more significant increases in brain temperature and the level of muscle contractile activity as compared with the effects of LPS alone. The period after sleep deprivation was characterized by more prolonged recovery of muscle contractile activity and the time characteristics of sleep and waking states, along with more prolonged compensatory "rebound" of slow-wave sleep as compared with the effects of sleep deprivation alone. Thus, sleep deprivation in endotoxemia led to decreases in the latent period of fever onset, exacerbation of fever, and increases in the latent period of recovery of physiological functions.

Canal and otolith contributions to compensatory tilt responses in pigeons.

Gaze-stabilizing eye and head responses compensate more effectively for low-frequency rotational motion when such motion stimulates the otolith organs, as during earth-horizontal axis rotations. However, the nature of the otolith signal responsible for this improvement in performance has not been previously determined. In this study, we used combinations of earth-horizontal axis rotational and translational motion to manipulate the magnitude of net linear acceleration experienced by pigeons, under both head-fixed and head-free conditions. We show that phase enhancement of eye and head responses to low-frequency rotational motion was causally related to the magnitude of dynamic net linear acceleration and not the gravitational acceleration component. We also show that canal-driven and otolith-driven eye responses were both spatially and temporally appropriate to combine linearly, and that a simple linear model combining canal- and otolith-driven components predicted eye responses to complex motion that were consistent with our experimental observations. However, the same model did not predict the observed head responses, which were spatially but not temporally appropriate to combine according to the same linear scheme. These results suggest that distinct vestibular processing substrates exist for eye and head responses in pigeons and that these are likely different from the vestibular processing substrates observed in primates.

Effects of breaks in the interval cycle on temporal tracking in pigeons

Two experiments examined the effects of inserting a break in a cyclic interval schedule on the temporal control of keypecking responses in pigeons. In Experiment 1, pigeons were exposed to intervals that changed from 45 to 15s and returned to 45 s. A break was inserted between the last 15-s and following 45-s interval and was in effect for either 0, 60, or 120 s. Either a blackout of lights in the test chamber or turning off the response key alone signaled breaks. In Experiment 2, we examined the effects of a wider range of breaks-0, 120, and 360 s. Post-reinforcement pause (PRP) tracked changes in the interval requirement across all conditions. However, breaks in the schedule, even one lasting 360 s, did not disrupt the overall time course of responding. The only effect that a break had on temporal performance was an elevation in the rate of responding and a shorter PRP in the interval following a break. The results suggest that breaks did not affect the birds' memory for short intervals, and that the momentary increase in responding may be related to the reinforcement omission effect.

Time-of-day variation in the sensitization of the acoustic response in pigeons

The present study investigated whether the sensitization to acoustic stimuli in pigeons oscillates as a function of the time of day. Both the training and testing were conducted in a single session and the procedure was repeated every 4 h with different experimental and control groups of pigeons. A skeleton photoperiod (two 15-min light pulses to indicate the beginning and the end of the day) was used to prevent the masking effects of the light-dark cycle. The procedure consisted of a baseline exposure to five tone pulses, sensitization training with two electric shocks (5 min interval) starting 5 min later and testing using a series of 40 tone pulses, starting 10 min later. The control birds were exposed to the chamber only. The magnitude of response was measured by an accelerometer located under the floor of the experimental chamber. Sensitization was analyzed by comparing the amplitude of the response during testing to the baseline level. The amplitude of response of the experimental birds varied as a function of the time of day, with significantly greater amplitude during the subjective night (P < 0.05). Control data showed no daily variation, however, suggesting that the rhythm in sensitization was due to the circadian modulation of a learning process.

MATCHING: ITS ACQUISITION AND GENERALIZATION

Choice typically is studied by exposing organisms to concurrent variable-interval schedules in which not only responses controlled by stimuli on the key are acquired but also switching responses and likely other operants as well. In the present research, discriminated key-pecking responses in pigeons were first acquired using a multiple schedule that minimized the reinforcement of switching operants. Then, choice was assessed during concurrent-probe periods in which pairs of discriminative stimuli were presented concurrently. Upon initial exposure to concurrently presented stimuli, choice approximated exclusive preference for the alternative associated with the higher reinforcement frequency. Concurrent schedules were then implemented that gave increasingly greater opportunities for switching operants to be conditioned. As these operants were acquired, the relation of relative response frequency to relative reinforcement frequency converged toward a matching relation. An account of matching with concurrent schedules is proposed in which responding exclusively to the discriminative stimulus associated with the higher reinforcement frequency declines as the concurrent stimuli become more similar and other operants-notably switching-are acquired and generalize to stimuli from both alternatives. The concerted effect of these processes fosters an approximate matching relation in commonly used concurrent procedures.

SEASONAL THERMAL ACCLIMATIZATION IN SEDENTARY AND ACTIVE PIGEONS

Thermal and metabolic responses of pigeons maintained outdoors throughout the year in small cages (sedentary birds) or in large aviaries (active birds) were measured at three ambient temperatures (20, -10, -40 ° C) in midwinter and midsummer. In winter, all birds maintained a significantly lower heat production (measured as oxygen consumption and shivering), body temperature, and conductance than in summer at the two lower test temperatures. All birds maintained homeothermic body temperatures down to -40 ° C. Activity level had no effects on these thermoregulatory variables. Body mass was significantly higher in winter birds, and pectoral mass was correspondingly increased in winter. An additional specific increase in pectoral muscle mass was seen in sedentary birds. Muscle cytochrome oxidase levels were significantly higher in active birds, especially during winter. In winter, the birds had a higher plasma triiodothyronine level than in summer, and lowest values were found in active summer birds. We conc...

P-629 - Study on the emctic response in pigeons (14): Antiemetic effect of a NKi receptor antagonist GR205171 on the cisplatin-induced emesis

P-629 - Study on the emctic response in pigeons (14): Antiemetic effect of a NKi receptor antagonist GR205171 on the cisplatin-induced emesis

Transfer of performance to new comparison choices following differential outcome matching-to-sample

Four experiments examined transfer of differential outcome performances to new choice responses in pigeons. Experiments 1A and 1B showed that new responses trained off a matching-to-sample baseline readily substituted for the choice alternatives in differential outcome matching, provided that they shared the same outcome associations as the alternatives they replaced. Experiment 2 showed that comparison responses trained on baseline, but in a task in which their different outcomes occurred equally often following each sample (viz., one-to-many matching), substituted for the choices in a standard, differential outcome task. Experiment 3 showed, somewhat surprisingly, that the choices in the latter task were likewise effective substitutes in one-to-many matching. These results pose separate challenges for standard two-process theory and for the bidirectional account of differential outcome performance, and they suggest other cues that pigeons may use to predict outcomes.

P-400 - Study on the emetic response in pigeons (13): Cisplatin-induced early and delayed emesis

P-400 - Study on the emetic response in pigeons (13): Cisplatin-induced early and delayed emesis

P-280 - Study on the emetic response in pigeons (12): Alkylxanthine-induced vomiting

P-280 - Study on the emetic response in pigeons (12): Alkylxanthine-induced vomiting