Response Format Research Articles

Comparison of variants of the valence × arousal circumplex-inspired emotion word questionnaire

Product-focused emotion research has been in ascendency for more than a decade, but methodological research into questionnaires, the most popular tool for measuring emotional associations is still needed. The present research was situated in this context and pertained to the valence × arousal circumplex-inspired emotion questionnaire (CEQ) which includes 12 pairs of emotion words. Variants of the CEQ that pertained to response options (single vs. multiple) and layout (circular vs. list) were compared in four consumer studies with a total of 1857 participants. In Studies 1 to 3, the CEQ variant that featured a circular layout and single response format (C&S) was compared to a list variant with multiple response format (L&M) (i.e., a check-all-that-apply question). Selection of CEQ emotion word pairs and degree of sample discrimination was contingent on CEQ variant, meaning that conclusions about sample similarities and differences depended on the CEQ variant that was used. This was also the result in Study 4 where two circular CEQ variants were compared, with single and multiple response formats, respectively. A further important finding was that stimuli format – tasted samples in Studies 1–2 and written stimuli in Studies 3–4 – as well as degree of sample differences influenced the extent to which the results from the CEQ variants differed. Our recommendations at this stage are to be aware that conclusions about sample profiles and discrimination is CEQ variant dependent and avoid directly comparing results from studies that use different CEQ variants. Implementing the CEQ as a multi-response variant is supported since it improves sample discrimination relative to single response data, particularly for pairs of emotion words that primarily relate to the dimension of arousal.

WSTĘPNE BADANIE PSYCHOAKUSTYCZNE ZASTOSOWANIA PROCEDURY SIAM DO POMIARU PROGÓW RÓŻNICOWANIA CZĘSTOTLIWOŚCI

BackgroundThe study investigated the cause of varying estimates of frequency difference limens (DLs) in delayed comparison tasks involving pitch retention in auditory working memory (AWM). Using procedures adapted from the method of constant stimuli (MCS) and the single-interval adjustment matrix (SIAM), we sought to determine via 3 experiments whether the disparity in frequency DLs obtained using each procedure was due to the method of measurement (Experiment 1), the response format (Experiment 2), or performance feedback (Experiment 3).Material and methodsFive adults (ages 21 to 38 years) with hearing within normal limits participated in Experiments 1 and 2, and seven adults (ages 20 to 30 years) with hearing within normal limits participated in Experiment 3. Delayed comparison tasks were used to evaluate frequency DLs under SIAM and MCS.ResultsOur preliminary results suggest that DL values for pitch discrimination are more influenced by response format than by the measurement procedure or performance feedback. Regardless of the method used, DL values were greater in the condition containing intervening stimuli compared to the condition lacking intervening stimuli.ConclusionsPreliminary findings suggest there is consistency in the listener’s adopted criterion (i.e., judgment rationale) across the psychoacoustic methods investigated. Performance measures suggest that SIAM is as accurate as MCS, but it is noteworthy that two SIAM measurement runs using the "same/different" response format is more efficient than four runs with MCS. Future application of the SIAM procedure for measuring DL values might, with larger sample sizes, identify additional factors that contribute to performance and the listener’s adopted criterion, since data collection time is appreciably shorter with SIAM.

Navigating the Path to a Sustainable “PACU Pause” and Standardized Perioperative Handoff: A Quality Improvement Project

PurposeThe purpose of this project was to develop and implement a pause and standardized perioperative handoff to improve the quality of the handoff and the satisfaction of the perioperative team in the postanesthesia care unit (PACU) setting. DesignThe Iowa Model for Evidence-Based Practice guided this evidence-based practice-quality improvement project. MethodsA team was formed of key nurses and other perioperative members to execute the project. The outcome of the evidence review, appraisal, and synthesis supported the change to a pause and standardized perioperative handoff. The project team educated perioperative staff on the practice change and new process. Baseline, 3-month and 1-year data were collected for adherence to the PACU PAUSE and handoff critical elements, and baseline and 3-months for satisfaction. FindingsPACU PAUSE adherence was 42.30% prepractice change, 92.3% postchange and 96.10% at 1-year. Adherence to the 17 critical elements in the standardized handoff was 40.16% prepractice change, 77.36% postchange and 71.78% at 1-year. Nurse satisfaction with the PACU PAUSE and handoff increased 59% and 50% respectively from pre to postpractice change. Operating room nurse and anesthesia provider satisfaction with PACU PAUSE and handoffs was greater than 85% at baseline and increased 14% and 8% respectively. ConclusionsThe PACU PAUSE allows for increased nurse concentration during the handoff and this can improve patient safety. Using a standardized handoff in situation, background, assessment, response format can decrease information loss and miscommunication, improve the quality of the handoff and the perioperative team members satisfaction with the handoff, and may mitigate patient safety events.

CREATIVITY AND ORGANISATIONAL EFFICIENCY: EMPIRICAL EVIDENCE FROM PRIVATE ORGANISATIONS IN NIGERIA

The study investigated creativity and organisational efficiency in Nigerian private organisations to ascertain the extent to which workforce creativity enhances organisational efficiency. The quantitative methodology was employed and the research design was a cross-sectional survey. Stratified sampling was employed in selecting respondents from ten multinational companies across the six geopolitical zones in Nigeria. Research data were elicited from the respondents with the help of a structured questionnaire. The question response format of items addressing the research questions in the questionnaire were of the five-point Likert scale. The study used measurement items related to the extant literature for all the measures. Structural equation modeling was employed in data analysis with organisational efficiency serving as the latent variable while creativity constructs served as the measured variables. Results show that three out of the four constructs of creativity were significant predictors of creativity Thus, the competitive environment, social capital and technological factors influence creativity and that creativity predicts organisational efficiency.

Response Category Functioning on the Health Care Engagement Measure Using the Nominal Response Model.

As part of a scale development project, we fit a nominal response item response theory model to responses to the Health Care Engagement Measure (HEM). When using the original 5-point response format, categories were not ordered as intended for six of the 23 items. For the remaining, the category boundary discrimination between Categories 0 (not at all true) and 1 (a little bit true) was only weakly discriminating, suggesting uninformative categories. When the lowest two categories were collapsed, psychometric properties improved greatly. Category boundary discriminations within items, however, varied significantly. Specifically, higher response category distinctions, such as responding 3 (very true) versus 2 (mostly true) were considerably more discriminating than lower response category distinctions. Implications for HEM scoring and for improving measurement precision at lower levels of the construct are presented as is the unique role of the nominal response model in category analysis.

Evaluation of the Midwifery Student Evaluation of Practice (MidSTEP) tool using Rasch analysis

ProblemQuantitative feedback from students about their clinical learning experiences is used to inform program quality, but the extent to which tools are reliable, valid and refined receives less attention. AimTo evaluate the psychometric properties of the Midwifery Student Evaluation of Practice (MidSTEP) tool using Rasch analysis. MethodsThe Midwifery Student Evaluation of Practice tool was completed by Bachelor of Midwifery students (n = 901) attending seven universities in Australia and New Zealand. The tool consists of the Clinical Learning Environment Scale (16 items) and Impact of the Midwifery Preceptor Scale (10 items), each with two subscales. Rasch analysis was conducted on all subscales separately using the partial credit model of RUMM2030. Response format, item fit, dimensionality of the scale and its targeting were assessed. ResultsRasch analysis confirmed the internal construct validity of the Clinical Learning Environment and Impact of the Midwifery Preceptor subscales, with no evidence of mis-fitting items, local dependency or multidimensionality. The 4-point response scale was found to be appropriate, and internal consistency reliability of each subscale was good. DiscussionResults provide support for the reliability and validity of the Midwifery Student Evaluation of Practice tool. The four subscales can confidently be used in undergraduate midwifery clinical education. The use of Rasch analysis is consistent with growing awareness in health and education of the need to apply more advanced, sophisticated psychometric techniques to ensure measures are suitable for their intended use. Tweetable abstractMidwifery students clinical learning experiences should be measured using robust tools. MidSTEP is reliable and valid.

CHANGES IN IMPLICIT LEADERSHIP THEORY CONSTELLATIONS THROUGHOUT A DEVELOPMENTAL EXPERIENCE

Challenging, novel, and educational experiences are critical contributors to effective leader and follower development, in part, because such developmental experiences enable people to reconceptualize their perceptions about the traits and characteristics of effective leaders, or their implicit leadership theory (ILT). To understand how ILTs develop throughout developmental experiences, we examine the ILTs of 276 undergraduate students at the beginning and end of their first year of college. Using an open-ended ILT response format, a unique ILT trait of integrity emerged along with the dominant ILT traits of sensitivity, charisma, and dedication identified in previous literature. Overcoming limitations of the factor-based ILT approach, we investigate the development of ILT constellations, allowing a holistic picture of ILTs and how they throughout a developmental experience. Based on cluster analyses, four constellations of ILT themes emerged. Participants shifted to different ILT constellations after a year in college, moving from a non-descript, varied constellation toward constellations with clearly defined, dominant themes. Exploratory analysis revealed that completion of leadership coursework partially explains the shift towards more descript ILT constellations. Results have implications for new methods of future research using the ILTs constellation perspective and the practice of undergraduate leadership education in facilitating leader development among college students.

Professional Knowledge and Self-Efficacy Expectations of Pre-Service Teachers Regarding Scientific Reasoning and Diagnostics

Understanding and knowledge of scientific reasoning skills is a key ability of pre-service teachers. In a written survey (open response format), biology and chemistry pre-service teachers (n = 51) from two German universities claimed central decisions or actions school students have to perform in scientific reasoning in the open inquiry instruction of an experiment. The participants’ answers were assessed in a quality content analysis using a rubric system generated from a theoretical background. Instruments in a closed response format were used to measure attitudes towards the importance of diagnostics in teacher training and the domain-specific expectations of self-efficacy. The pre-service teacher lacked pedagogical (didactics) content knowledge about potential student difficulties and also exhibited a low level of content methodological (procedural) knowledge. There was no correlation between the knowledge of student difficulties and the approach to experimenting with expectations of self-efficacy for diagnosing student abilities regarding scientific reasoning. Self-efficacy expectations concerning their own abilities to successfully cope with general and experimental diagnostic activities were significantly lower than the attitude towards the importance of diagnostics in teacher training. The results are discussed with regard to practical implications as they imply that scientific reasoning should be promoted in university courses, emphasising the importance of understanding the science-specific procedures (knowing how) and epistemic constructs in scientific reasoning (knowing why).

Predicting children's audiovisual speech recognition thresholds based on unimodal performance

This study examined the extent to which individual differences in children’s audiovisual speech recognition thresholds are explained by their performance in unimodal auditory and unimodal visual conditions. Auditory-only and audiovisual speech recognition thresholds were measured in fifty children between 7 and 9 years of age using an adaptive closed-set speech recognition task in a two-talker speech masker. Children heard color-number combinations and responded by choosing the color-number combination on a touch-screen monitor. Visual-only speech recognition accuracy scores were measured using the same stimuli and closed-set response format. Correlations and linear modeling were used to examine the extent to which visual-only speech recognition accuracy, auditory-only speech recognition thresholds, and age predict audiovisual speech recognition thresholds. Audiovisual speech recognition thresholds were positively correlated with auditory-only speech recognition thresholds and negatively correlated with visual-only accuracy. A linear model explained 38% of variance in audiovisual thresholds and indicated that children with better visual-only accuracy had lower audiovisual thresholds. Effects of auditory-only accuracy and age were non-significant. These results suggest that lipreading ability contributes to individual differences in 7- to 9-year-old children’s audiovisual recognition of color-number stimuli in a two-talker speech masker.

The non-transparent usage and reporting of the Edinburgh Handedness Inventory in functional magnetic resonance imaging literature: a survey of studies published since 2013

ABSTRACT Subject handedness is an important parameter to be evaluated and accounted for in neuroscience studies dealing with laterality. The aim of this study was to survey for the details of how researchers administered the Edinburgh handedness inventory (EHI) to assess subject handedness. Web of Science and PubMed databases was searched on 3 August 2021 to identify functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) articles published since 2013 using the EHI or citing Oldfield, the original paper that introduced the EHI. Articles not actually using the EHI and/or its variants were excluded. Two reviewers performed the screening independently and disagreements were solved by mutual consensus. Most of the 406 studies using the EHI did not report details regarding the number of items (94.1%), identity of items (96.1%), response format (97.0%), and cutoff score for right-handedness (87.2%). Items were found dropped or replaced, with response format and cutoff score changed without citing references that justified the modifications. A clearer reporting of the details of the EHI as an assessment tool for determining subject handedness should be encouraged.

Validity of the ACTS intimate partner violence screen in antenatal care: a cross sectional study

BackgroundIntimate partner violence (IPV) is a major public health problem with harmful consequences. In Australia, there is no national standard screening tool and screening practice is variable across states. The objectives of this study were to assess in the antenatal healthcare setting: i) the validity of a new IPV brief screening tool and ii) women’s preference for screening response format, screening frequency and comfort level.MethodsOne thousand sixty-seven antenatal patients in a major metropolitan Victorian hospital in Australia completed a paper-based, self-administered survey. The survey included four screening items about whether they were Afraid/Controlled/Threatened/Slapped or physically hurt (ACTS) by a partner or ex-partner in the last 12 months; and the Composite Abuse Scale (reference standard). The ACTS screen was presented firstly with a binary yes/no response format and then with a five-point ordinal frequency format from ‘never’ (0) to ‘very frequently’ (4). The main outcome measures were test statistics of the four-item ACTS screening tool (sensitivity, specificity, predictive values, and area under the curve) against the reference standard and women’s screening preferences.ResultsTwelve-month IPV prevalence varied depending on the ACTS response format with 8% (83) positive on ACTS yes/no format, 12.8% (133) positive on ACTS ordinal frequency format and 10.5% (108) on the reference Composite Abuse Scale. Overall, the ACTS screening tool demonstrated clinical utility for the ordinal frequency format (AUC, 0.80; 95% CI = 0.76 to 0.85) and the binary yes/no format (AUC, 0.74, 95% CI = 0.69 to 0.79). The frequency scale (66%) had greater sensitivity than the yes/no scale (51%). The positive and negative predictive values were 56 and 96% for the frequency scale and 68 and 95% for the yes/no scale. Specificity was high regardless of screening question response options. Half (53%) of the women categorised as abused preferred the yes/no scale. Around half of the women (48%, 472) thought health care providers should ask pregnant women about IPV at every visit.ConclusionsThe four-item ACTS tool (using the frequency scale and a cut-off of one on any item) is recommended for written self-administered screening of women to identify those experiencing IPV to enable first-line response and follow-up.

Systematic Review of Substance Use Measurement Tools in Adolescent and Young Adult Childhood Cancer Survivors.

Substance use among adolescents and young adults (AYAs) is associated with an increased risk of poor physical and mental health outcomes. For AYA childhood cancer survivors (CCSs), substance use may also increase their likelihood of experiencing late effects. As a result, professional organizations recommend that AYA CCSs be regularly screened for risk behaviors, including substance use. The best methods for assessing these behaviors as part of clinical care for AYA CCSs, however, remain unclear. To begin to address this gap, the purpose of this study was to systematically review written substance use measures that have been used with AYA CCSs and published between 2000 and 2020. A search of PubMed, PsycINFO, and CINAHL using terms related to substance use and AYA CCSs identified 47 articles representing 20 different written substance use measures that evaluated current substance use (i.e., use of alcohol, tobacco, marijuana, prescription medications taken in a manner other than as prescribed, and/or other illicit substances within the 12 months). Measures varied in domains assessed, item formats, and response formats. Results are presented alongside recommendations for selecting screening tools for use with AYA CCS populations in both clinical and research settings.

New insights on respondents’ recall ability and memory effects when repeatedly measuring political efficacy

Many study designs in social science research rely on repeated measurements implying that the same respondents are asked the same (or nearly the same) questions at least twice. An assumption made by such study designs is that respondents second answer does not depend on their first answer. However, if respondents recall their initial answer and base their second answer on it memory effects may affect the survey outcome. In this study, I investigate respondents’ recall ability and memory effects within the same survey and randomly assign respondents to a device type (PC or smartphone) and a response format (response scale or text field) for reporting their previous answer. While the results reveal no differences regarding device types, they reveal differences regarding response formats. Respondents’ recall ability is higher when they are provided with the response scale again than when they are only provided with a text field (without displaying the response scale again). The same finding applies to the size of estimated memory effects. This study provides evidence that the size of memory effects may have been overestimated in previous studies.

Capturing richer information: On establishing the validity of an interval-valued survey response mode

Obtaining quantitative survey responses that are both accurate and informative is crucial to a wide range of fields. Traditional and ubiquitous response formats such as Likert and visual analogue scales require condensation of responses into discrete or point values—but sometimes a range of options may better represent the correct answer. In this paper, we propose an efficient interval-valued response mode, whereby responses are made by marking an ellipse along a continuous scale. We discuss its potential to capture and quantify valuable information that would be lost using conventional approaches, while preserving a high degree of response efficiency. The information captured by the response interval may represent a possible response range—i.e., a conjunctive set, such as the real numbers between 3 and 6. Alternatively, it may reflect uncertainty in respect to a distinct response—i.e., a disjunctive set, such as a confidence interval. We then report a validation study, utilizing our recently introduced open-source software (DECSYS), to explore how interval-valued survey responses reflect experimental manipulations of several factors hypothesised to influence interval width, across multiple contexts. Results consistently indicate that respondents used interval widths effectively, and subjective participant feedback was also positive. We present this as initial empirical evidence for the efficacy and value of interval-valued response capture. Interestingly, our results also provide insight into respondents’ reasoning about the different aforementioned types of intervals—we replicate a tendency towards overconfidence for those representing epistemic uncertainty (i.e., disjunctive sets), but find intervals representing inherent range (i.e., conjunctive sets) to be well-calibrated.

Probing emotional recognition memory: how different response formats affect response behaviour

ABSTRACT Receiver-operating characteristic curves from confidence ratings and remember/know (R/K) judgments are often used to estimate the contribution of familiarity and recollection to recognition memory. Both coming with specific advantages and disadvantages, which could be reduced by their combination. Little is known how the combination of both methods impacts response behaviour. This could be particularly important for emotional memory research, which is susceptible to variation in meta-mnemonic processes. We obtained reference performance indices from the two methods, instructing individuals to give confidence ratings or R/K judgments in one step. Against these, we contrasted R/K judgments in a two-step format and two combined formats, confidence ratings followed by R/K judgments and vice versa. Regarding reference formats, confidence ratings resulted in more liberal response criteria and false alarm rates than R/K judgments. Two-step R/K judgments and confidence ratings followed by R/K judgments resulted in patterns similar to one-step R/K judgments. Reversing the order resulted in more liberal response biases, higher hit and false alarms rates. Recollection and familiarity were unaffected by response formats. Valence effects did not vary with response formats. The present results suggest that confidence ratings followed by R/K judgments provide the advantages of both without biasing response behaviour.

The effect of spatial distance between objects on categorization level

We show that spatial distance between two objects influences how people categorize these objects. We report three (two pre-registered) experiments that show that when objects are presented close together (proximal), they are more likely to be categorized in a superordinate category than when they are presented further apart (distant). In Experiments 1A and 1B, participants provided spontaneous category labels in an open response format. In Experiment 2, we asked participants to indicate their preference for either of two category labels. We found that when objects were close together, they were categorized more often into superordinate categories than when objects were far apart (Experiments 1A and 2). Our findings demonstrate that the categorization of objects is, in part, determined by where they are in relation to other objects.

How Reliable are 11- to 13-Year-Olds’ Self-Ratings of Effort in Noisy Conditions?

Performing a task in noisy conditions is effortful. This is especially relevant for children in classrooms as the effort involved could impair their learning and academic achievements. Numerous studies have investigated how to use behavioral and physiological methods to measure effort, but limited data are available on how well school-aged children rate effort in their classrooms. This study examines whether and how self-ratings can be used to describe the effort children perceive while working in a noisy classroom. This is done by assessing the effect of listening condition on self-rated effort in a group of 182 children 11–13 years old. The children performed three tasks typical of daily classroom activities (speech perception, sentence comprehension, and mental calculation) in three listening conditions (quiet, traffic noise, and classroom noise). After completing each task, they rated their perceived task-related effort on a five-point scale. Their task accuracy and response times (RTs) were recorded (the latter as a behavioral measure of task-related effort). Participants scored higher (more effort) on their self-ratings in the noisy conditions than in quiet. Their self-ratings were also sensitive to the type of background noise, but only for the speech perception task, suggesting that children might not be fully aware of the disruptive effect of background noise. A repeated-measures correlation analysis was run to explore the possible relationship between the three study outcomes (accuracy, self-ratings, and RTs). Self-ratings correlated with accuracy (in all tasks) and with RTs (only in the speech perception task), suggesting that the relationship between different measures of listening effort might depend on the task. Overall, the present findings indicate that self-reports could be useful for measuring changes in school-aged children’s perceived listening effort. More research is needed to better understand, and consequently manage, the individual factors that might affect children’s self-ratings (e.g., motivation) and to devise an appropriate response format.

Development and preliminary evaluation of a brief five-factor personality instrument

Instruments to measure personality traits in the five-factor model of personality are typically lengthy, which can hamper their use in studies with multiple measures. In this study we developed a brief five-factor instrument based on a bipolar statement response format and validated the instrument for use in the Singapore education context. The 20-item Brief Five-Factor Instrument (BFFI) comprises four items to measure each personality factor in the five-factor model. To evaluate the internal structure of the BFFI, students at two polytechnics in Singapore responded to the scale (Polytechnic A, n = 421; Polytechnic B, n = 271). Exploratory and confirmatory factor analyses were conducted to evaluate the factor structure of the measure. Results suggest that the BFFI has promise for use in the Singapore education context.

Development of the Paranormal and Supernatural Beliefs Scale using classical and modern test theory

BackgroundThis study describes the construction and validation of a new scale for measuring belief in paranormal phenomena. The work aims to address psychometric and conceptual shortcomings associated with existing measures of paranormal belief. The study also compares the use of classic test theory and modern test theory as methods for scale development.MethodWe combined novel items and amended items taken from existing scales, to produce an initial corpus of 29 items. Two hundred and thirty-one adult participants rated their level of agreement with each item using a seven-point Likert scale.ResultsClassical test theory methods (including exploratory factor analysis and principal components analysis) reduced the scale to 14 items and one overarching factor: Supernatural Beliefs. The factor demonstrated high internal reliability, with an excellent test–retest reliability for the total scale. Modern test theory methods (Rasch analysis using a rating scale model) reduced the scale to 13 items with a four-point response format. The Rasch scale was found to be most effective at differentiating between individuals with moderate-high levels of paranormal beliefs, and differential item functioning analysis indicated that the Rasch scale represents a valid measure of belief in paranormal phenomena.ConclusionsThe scale developed using modern test theory is identified as the final scale as this model allowed for in-depth analyses and refinement of the scale that was not possible using classical test theory. Results support the psychometric reliability of this new scale for assessing belief in paranormal phenomena, particularly when differentiating between individuals with higher levels of belief.

The Patient Mania Questionnaire (PMQ-9): a Brief Scale for Assessing and Monitoring Manic Symptoms.

Measurement-based care is an effective clinical strategy underutilized for bipolar disorder partly due to lacking a widely adopted patient-reported manic symptom measure. To report development and psychometric properties of a brief patient-reported manic symptom measure. Secondary analysis of data collected in a randomized effectiveness trial comparing two treatments for 1004 primary care patients screening positive for bipolar disorder and/or PTSD. Two analytic samples included 114 participants with varied diagnoses and test-retest data, and 179 participants with psychiatrist-diagnosed bipolar disorder who had two or more assessments with the nine-item Patient Mania Questionnaire-9 [PMQ-9]). Internal and test-retest reliability, concurrent validity, and sensitivity to change were assessed. Minimally important difference (MID) was estimated by standard error of measurement (SEM) and by standard deviation (SD) effect sizes. The PMQ-9 had high internal reliability (Cronbach's alpha = 0.88) and test-retest reliability (0.85). Concurrent validity correlation with manic symptom measures was high for the Internal State Scale-Activation Subscale (0.70; p<0.0001), and lower for the Altman Mania Rating Scale (0.26; p=0.007). Longitudinally, PMQ-9 was completed at 1511 clinical encounters in 179 patients with bipolar disorder. Mean PMQ-9 score at first and last encounters was 14.5 (SD 6.5) and 10.1 (SD 7.0), a 27% decrease in mean score during treatment, suggesting sensitivity to change. A point estimate of the MID was approximately 3 points (range of 2-4). The PMQ-9 demonstrated excellent test-retest reliability, concurrent validity, internal consistency, and sensitivity to change and was widely used and acceptable to patients and clinicians in a pragmatic clinical trial. Combined with the Patient Health Questionnaire-9 (PHQ-9) measure of depressive symptoms this brief measure could inform measurement-based care for individuals with bipolar disorder in primary care and mental health care settings given its ease of administration and familiar self-report response format.