Resistor Test Research Articles

InN/InAlN heterostructures for new generation of fast electronics

N-polar InN/In0.61Al0.39N heterostructures are grown directly on sapphire by using metalorganic chemical vapor deposition. The thickness of Mg-doped In0.61Al0.39N is 340 nm, and the root-mean-square surface roughness of 20 nm thick InN is ∼3.2 nm. An optional AlN spike grown at 710 °C for 35 s is used either as an interlayer to separate the InAlN buffer from the InN channel or as a part of InAlN nucleation after sapphire nitridation. High-resolution transmission electron microscopy reveals approximately two monolayers of AlN if used as the interlayer. In this case, the concentration of screw and edge threading dislocations in partially strained InN decreased down to 6.5 × 109 and 38 × 109 cm−2, respectively. More importantly, the interlayer inclusion suppressed remote donor and alloy disorder scatterings, providing, at room temperature, the InN free electron mobility and concentration of 620 cm2/V s and 3 × 1013 cm−2, respectively. On the other hand, omitting the AlN spike by InAlN nucleation led to structural deteriorations while buffer resistivity increased to 1.7 kΩ/□. A current density of ∼12–16 A/mm, breakdown field of ∼75 kV/cm, and electron drift velocity of ∼2 × 107 cm/s were determined in InN by applying 10 ns voltage pulses on fabricated test resistors.

Prototype of a Digital Measuring Device Based on Atmega 328P for Measuring Current, Voltage, Electrical Power, and RLC Components

Research on digital measuring device prototypes has developed over the past few years. However, there are still challenges in measuring current, voltage, electrical power, and RLC component parameters accurately. This research aims to design a digital system to measure electrical quantities such as current, voltage, resistance, inductance, and capacitance using Atmega 328P. Data retrieval is done by implementing the system as a whole, namely the AC and DC electrical measurement system and the measurement of RLC components. The results showed that the system can measure and display the result of measuring current, voltage, electric power, and RLC components correctly. The accuracy percentage for the components measuring instrument on the resistor test is 99.35%, the error is 0.65%, and the precision is 99.87%. In the inductor test measurement, the percentage value of accuracy is 94.11%, the error is 5.89%, and the precision is 96.77%. In the capacitor test measurement, the accuracy percentage is 98.03%, the error is 1.97%, and the precision is 98.65%. On the DC voltage sensor, the accuracy percentage is 97.31%, error 2.69%, and precision 99.77%.

Failure Analysis of OLTC during Transition Resistor Test

Emerging modern technologies and ever-changing demands compete with each other to bring new changes to the sociotechnical life of human beings. OLTC is one such equipment connected as an integral part of the transformer to change the turns ratio while the transformer is in energized condition, to adjust the output voltage. Changing times and technology brought many changes in the OLTC techniques, design and operation. Traditionally OLTC is a complex mechanical device, which has some deficiencies. OLTC design elements are checked during the transition resistor test. Thus, OLTC testing for transition resistors is a method to enhance the reliability of OLTC design. This paper discusses a typical failure case of OLTC during the transition resistor test conducted in CPRI.

Computer‐aided selective production of low-resistance NiP and NiCuP layers

Purpose This paper aims to present the possibility of computer-aided technology of chemical metallization for the production of electrodes and resistors based on Ni-P and Ni-Cu-P layers. Design/methodology/approach Based on the calculated parameters of the process, test structures were made on an alumina substrate using the selective metallization method. Dependences of the surface resistance on the metallization time were made. These dependencies take into account the comparison of the calculations with the performed experiment. Findings The author created a convenient and easy-to-use tool for calculating basic Ni-P and Ni-Cu-P layer parameters, namely, surface resistance and temperature coefficient of resistance (TCR) of test resistor, based on chemical metallization parameters. The values are calculated for a given level of surface resistance of Ni-P and Ni-Cu-P layer and defined required range of changes of TCR of test resistor. The calculations are possible for surface resistance values in the range of 0.4 Ohm/square ÷ 2.5 Ohm/square. As a result of the experiment, surface resistances were obtained that practically coincide with the calculations made with the use of the program created by the authors. The quality of the structures made is very good. Originality/value To the best of the authors’ knowledge, the paper presents a new, unpublished method of manufacturing electrodes (resistors) on silicon, Al2O3 and low temperature co-fired ceramic substrates based on the authors developed computer program.

Large-area growth of MoS2 at temperatures compatible with integrating back-end-of-line functionality

Direct growth of transition metal dichalcogenides over large areas within the back-end-of-line (BEOL) thermal budget limit of silicon integrated circuits is a significant challenge for 3D heterogeneous integration. In this work, we report on the growth of MoS2 films (∼1–10 nm) on SiO2, amorphous-Al2O3, c-plane sapphire, and glass substrates achieved at low temperatures (350 °C–550 °C) by chemical vapor deposition in a manufacturing-compatible 300 mm atomic layer deposition reactor. We investigate the MoS2 films as a potential material solution for BEOL logic, memory and sensing applications. Hall-effect/4-point measurements indicate that the ∼10 nm MoS2 films exhibit very low carrier concentrations (1014–1015 cm−3), high resistivity, and Hall mobility values of ∼0.5–17 cm2 V−1 s−1, confirmed by transistor and resistor test device results. MoS2 grain boundaries and stoichiometric defects resulting from the low thermal budget growth, while detrimental to lateral transport, can be leveraged for the integration of memory and sensing functions. Vertical transport memristor structures (Au/MoS2/Au) incorporating ∼3 nm thick MoS2 films grown at 550 °C (∼0.75 h) show memristive switching and a stable memory window of 105 with a retention time >104 s, between the high-low resistive states. The switching set and reset voltages in these memristors demonstrate a significant reduction compared to memristors fabricated from pristine, single-crystalline MoS2 at higher temperatures, thereby reducing the energy needed for operation. Furthermore, interdigitated electrode-based gas sensors fabricated on ∼5 nm thick 550 °C-grown (∼1.25 h) MoS2 films show excellent selectivity and sub-ppm sensitivity to NO2 gas, with a notable self-recovery at room temperature. The demonstration of large-area MoS2 direct growth at and below the BEOL thermal budget limit, alongside memristive and gas sensing functionality, advances a key enabling technology objective in emerging materials and devices for 3D heterogeneous integration.

A Method to Identify Locations of Uncontrolled Electricity Consumption in Electric Networks 0,4 kV

The analysis of existing methods is carried out and a new way to identify the place of uncontrolled electricity consumption in electrical networks of 0,4 kV with the use of an automated system of control and accounting of electricity is proposed. The method is based on the comparison of voltages measured at consumers’ and in the power center with the load disconnected. When implementing the proposed method, it is proposed to include devices with switched test resistances into the breaking of the phase wires of the consumers` branches, these devices are remotely controlled by consumers’ electricity meters. The number and values of test resistances determine the desired value of the minimum fixed uncontrolled consumption of electrical energy, regardless of the parameters of the power supply system of the consumer, taking into account the permissible error of the measuring devices used. The developed method allows to identify places of uncontrolled power consumption quickly, and the proposed device can be the basis to build control systems which use the information about the voltage drop on the test resistor when the load is connected.

Stability of low ohmic thick-film resistors under pulsed operation

Durability of low ohmic thick-film resistors on pulse load with micro- and millisecond duration are described in this paper. Standard thick-film resistive compositions with sheet resistance of 10 Ohms/sq. (4311 and QS871 - DuPont; R400-10A - Heraeus) and 3 Ohms/sq. (QS870 - DuPont) were tested. Test resistors with resistance of 3 Ω were prepared on alumina substrates. Resistance changes were measured after 50 pulses at each voltage. Then the voltage was increased and the series of pulses were repeated until the resistance change exceeded 0.5%.Impact of long and short pulses was analyzed for selected pulse duration of 10 μs and 20 ms, respectively. The measurements were carried out for some selected resistors length. The resistors stressed by long pulses exhibited the highest durability, when the thermal interface between substrate and heatsink was filled by thermally conductive grease. In this case resistors made of 4311 and QS871 pastes can withstand the highest power density of about 19 W/mm2 and 18 W/mm2 for the samples with and without the overglaze, respectively. Short (microsecond) pulses had the least influence on overglazed resistors made of QS871 paste, for which the resistance change of +0.5% was observed at electric field intensity of about 85 ± 10 V/mm.Additionally, the critical electric field intensity and critical power density were determined for different pulse duration for selected resistor length of 2 mm. Pulse duration from 10 μs to 1 s with one point per decade were taken into account. The results shown, that overglazed resistors exhibit better durability for all tested resistive pastes for short pulses. However for the long pulses, the results are almost the same. This fact can be explained by limitation of heat transfer in the substrate.Repetitive pulse load was applied for selected samples. The results show that resistors exhibited very good stability after test with 0.1 million pulses with amplitude of 70% of critical electric field intensity values.

Relationship between resistance, TCR and stabilization temperature of amorphous Ni-P alloy

PurposeThe paper aims to present a research on the impact of the stabilization process of a thin metallic layer (Ni-P) produced on a ceramic surface (Al2O3) by means of electroless metallization on its electric parameters and structure. On the basis of the research conducted, the existence of a relationship between resistance (R) and the temperature coefficient of resistance (TCR) of the test structure with a Ni-P alloy-based layer and the temperature of stabilization was proposed.Design/methodology/approachMetallic Ni-P layers were deposited on sensitized and activated substrates. Metallization was conducted in an aqueous solution containing two primary ingredients: sodium hypophosphite and nickel chloride. The concentration of both ingredients was (50-70) g/dm3. The process lasted 60 min, and the metallization bath pH was kept at 2.1-2.2, whereas the temperature was maintained at 363 K. The thermal stabilization process was conducted in different temperatures between 453 and 623 K. After the technological processes, the resistance and TCR of the test structures were measured with a micro ohmmeter. The composition and the morphology of the resistive layer of the structures examined was also determined.FindingsThe dependence of the resistance on the temperature of the stabilization process for the temperature range 553 to 623 K was described using mathematical relationships. The TCR of test resistors at the same thermal stabilization temperature range was also described using a mathematical equation. The measurements show that the resistive layer contains 82.01 at.% of nickel (Ni) and 17.99 at.% of phosphorus (P).Originality/valueThe results associate a surface morphology Ni-P alloy with the resistance and TCR according to temperature stabilization. The paper presents mathematical relationships that have not been described in the literature available.

Influence of light Through Optical Glasses on Electroencephalogram

Abstract: Background: In General, optical powered glasses are used to have good focus and clear vision. But, this practice may also bring noticeable variation in light intensity which in turn affects neural behavior. These changes can be interpreted from the EEG recordings. Thus, in this present study, the grounds for amendments in different physiological variables due to light intensity through optical glasses experienced by the subject have been reviewed and verified. Experiment: Changes in light intensity through optical powered glasses have been demonstrated using a Light Dependent Resistor (LDR) test for various cases. From this study, it was found that positive powered optical glass increases the light intensity falling on an eye, while negative powered optical glass reduces light intensity. Case Study: A case study was performed using experimental and subjective analysis were made to confirm that misfocused or unclear vision bring changes in frontal frequency and makes subject fatigue and eyes strain which is prone to severe headache and development of seizures. Recommendations: It is to be noted by the EEG practitioner to confirm that, whether optical powered glasses used by the subject is to be match with refractive error of an eye. If not, the frontal frequency gets increased and may suspect as seizures or other any abnormality. Key words: Electroencephalogram, Light, Light Dependent Resistor, Optical glass, Neurophysiology.

The Research on Design and Manufacture of AC Resistor

Ohm is the basic unit of electric parameter. Its quantity transferable system is achieved by the ohm resistor. The quality of the ohm resistor is directly related to the accuracy and reliability of quantity transmission system. Ohm resistor can be divided into DC resistor and AC resistor to use. With the development of modern electronic technology, the AC resistor attracts more attention. The design and manufacture of AC resistor has always been difficult which involves cross-integration of the mechanics, electromagnetic and material science, the design effect of most products is not ideal. The technical features, design principles and factors in manufacturing are present in this paper for AC resistor manufacture and test units.

Superhydrophobic Nanocomposite Coating for Reliability Improvement of Microelectronics

We developed superhydrophobic (SH) silica/epoxy nanocomposite coating as an encapsulant to improve device reliability. The SH surface was generated by spin-coating of a silica/epoxy nanocomposite, followed by an oxygen reactive ion etching that exposes silica nanostructures for high surface roughness, and a subsequent hydrophobic treatment for low surface energy. As a result, a water contact angle of 161.2° and a contact angle hysteresis of 1.7° were achieved under an optimized condition. Such SH coating showed good stability under humidity at elevated temperatures and was applied on the triple track resistor (TTR) test coupons. It is found that the self-cleaning encapsulant successfully improves the test device reliability, and the coated TTR showed less degradation of resistance and leakage current in the temperature humidity bias test. In addition, the effect of different types of epoxy resin on reliability improvement was studied.

차량 연료히터의 전기적 성능시험 평가 시스템 구현

In this paper, we have implemented the performance evaluation system of the unified fuel heater for CRDI diesel engine. If the diesel engine be cold by low temperature in winter, then that makes the waxing materials like a paraffin and is the source of poor engine starting. The unified fuel heater is the barrow meter that estimate the start performance of diesel engine, and be tested by test chamber. The chamber perform the normal temperature, an extremely low temperature, an operating performance in an extremely high temperature, the resistance operation delay time and current operation delay time in setting up test resistance, the bimetal delay time test in temperature variation, the current and resistor test of the composited heater, a heating operation test.

Interface Characterization of Metals and Metal-nitrides to Phase Change Materials

ABSTRACTWe have investigated the interfacial contact properties of the CMOS compatible electrode materials W, TiW, Ta, TaN and TiN to doped-Sb2Te phase change material (PCM). This interface is characterized both in the amorphous and in the crystalline state of the doped-Sb2Te. The electrical nature of the interface is characterized by contact resistance measurements and is expressed in terms of specific interfacial contact resistance (ρC). These measurements are performed on four-terminal Kelvin Resistor test structures. Knowledge of the ρC is useful for selection of the electrode in the integration and optimization of the phase change memory cells.

An ultralow noise current amplifier based on superconducting quantum interference device for high sensitivity applications

An integrated ultrahigh sensitive current amplifier based on a niobium dc superconducting quantum interference device (SQUID) has been developed. The sensor design is based on a multiturn signal coil coupled to a suitable SQUID magnetometer. The signal coil consists of 60 square niobium turns tightly coupled to a superconducting flux transformer of a SQUID magnetometer. The primary coil (pick-up coil) of the flux transformer has been suitably designed in order to accommodate the multiturn input coil. It has a side length of 10 mm and a width of 2.4 mm. In such a way we have obtained a signal current to magnetic flux transfer coefficient (current sensitivity) as low as 62 nA∕Φ(0). The sensor has been characterized in liquid helium by using a direct coupling low noise readout electronic and a standard modulated electronic in flux locked loop configuration for the noise measurements. Beside the circuit complexity, the sensor has exhibited a smooth and free resonance voltage-flux characteristic guaranteeing a reliable and a stable working operation. Considering a SQUID magnetic flux noise of S(Φ)(1∕2) = 1.8 μΦ(0)∕Hz(1∕2) at T = 4.2 K, a current noise as low as 110 fA∕Hz(1∕2) is obtained. Such a value is about a factor two less than the noise of other SQUIDs of the same category. As an application, Nyquist noise measurements of integrated test resistors using the current sensing noise thermometer technique are reported. Due to its high performance such a sensor can be employed in all applications requiring an extremely current sensitivity like the readout of the gravitational wave detectors and the current sensing noise thermometry.

Interfacial Resistive Properties of Nickel Silicide Thin Films to Doped Silicon

Improved means of electrical access to nanotechnology devices and accurate nanoscale characterization of electrical properties of ultrathin layers constituting such electrical contacts is of utmost interest to nanoelectronics researchers. This paper reports on the characterization of interfacial resistive properties of ohmic contacts to doped silicon, incorporating thin films of nickel silicide. Silicon doping was achieved by carefully designed ion implantation of antimony (for n-type) and boron (for p-type). Cross Kelvin resistor test structures were used to extract the specific contact resistivity (SCR) values for the different ohmic contacts fabricated. SCR values, which are quantitative characteristics of interfacial resistive properties, as low as for contacts to antimony-doped silicon and to boron-doped silicon were estimated. These experimental results, representing the lowest such values measured, were based on a rigorous evaluation technique and verified by finite element modeling.

A low-power readout circuit for nanowire based hydrogen sensor

This paper presents a fully integrated lock-in amplifier intended for nanowire gas sensing. The nanowire will change its conductivity according to the concentration of an absorbing gas. To ensure an accurate nanowire impedance measurement, a lock-in technique is implemented to attenuate the low frequency noise and offset by synchronous demodulation or phase-sensitive detection (PSD). The dual-channel lock-in amplifier also provides both resistive and capacitive information of the nanowire in separate channels. Measurement results of test resistors and capacitors show a 2% resolution in the resistance range 10–40kΩ and a 3% resolution in the capacitance range 0.5–1.8nF. Moreover, a 28.7–32.1kΩ impedance variation was measured through the lock-in amplifier for a single palladium nanowire that was exposed to a decreasing hydrogen concentration (10% H2 in N2 to air). The chip has been implemented with UMC 0.18μm CMOS technology and occupies an area of 2mm2. The power consumption of the readout circuit is 2mW from a 1.8V supply.

Interfacial Resistive Properties of Multi-layered Silicon-based Ohmic Contacts

AbstractThis article reports on the characterization of two- and three-layer ohmic contacts comprising of titanium disilicide and nickel silicide. Cross Kelvin resistor test structures were used to extract the specific contact resistivity (SCR) values for the different ohmic contacts fabricated. The SCR of aluminum to titanium silicide (Al-TiSi2) ohmic contacts was evaluated to be as low as 6.0 x 10-10 Ωcm2. Three-layer ohmic contacts were created using aluminum and nickel silicide thin films and doped silicon. SCR values as low as 5.0 x 10-9 Ωcm2 to antimony-doped silicon and 3.5 x 10-9 Ωcm2 to boron-doped silicon were evaluated.

Analytical and Finite-Element Modeling of a Cross Kelvin Resistor Test Structure for Low Specific Contact Resistivity

Various test structures have been employed to determine the specific contact resistivity (rho <i xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink">c</i> ) of ohmic contacts, and cross Kelvin resistor (CKR) test structures are most suitable for estimating low rho <i xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink">c</i> values. The value determined by CKRs includes error due to parasitic resistances that have been difficult to account for when rho <i xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink">c</i> is low (< 10 <sup xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink">-7</sup> Omega ldr cm <sup xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink">2</sup> ). In this paper, an analytical technique for determining the error in measurements from CKR test structures is presented. The analytical model described for circular contacts is based on Bessel function expressions. Using several contacts of different diameter ( <i xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink">d</i> ) with <i xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink">d</i> / <i xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink">w</i> les 0.4 ( <i xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink">w</i> is the width of the CKR arms), the parasitic resistance can be accurately accounted for by extrapolation of experimental data to <i xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink">d</i> / <i xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink">w</i> rarr 0. Finite-element modeling and experimental results for metal-to-silicide contacts are used to validate the analytical expressions presented.

Reliability of Lead-Free Solder Interconnections in Thermal and Power Cycling Tests

Lead-free solder interconnection reliability of thin fine-pitch ball grid array (BGA) lead-free packages has been studied experimentally as well as with finite-element (FE) simulations. The reliability tests were composed of the thermal shock test, the local thermal cycling test (resistors embedded in the board around the package), and the power cycling test (heat generation in the die). A 3-D board-level finite-element analysis (FEA) with local models was carried out to estimate the reliability of the solder interconnections under various test conditions. Due to the transient nature of the local thermal cycling test and the power cycling test, a sequential thermal-structural coupling analysis was employed to simulate the transient temperature distribution as well as the mechanical responses. Darveaux's approach was used to predict the life time of the solder interconnections. Furthermore, the numerical results validated by the experimental results indicated that the diagonal solder interconnections beneath the die edge were the most critical ones of all the tests studied here. It has been found that the fatigue life in the power cycling test was much longer than that in the other two tests. Detailed discussions about the failure mechanism of solder interconnections as well as the microstructural observations of the primary cracks are reported in this paper.

Accurate Estimation of Low $( ≪ \hbox{10}^{-8}\ \Omega \cdot \hbox{cm}^{2})$ Values of Specific Contact Resistivity

Advancements in nanotechnology have created the need for efficient means of communication of electrical signals to nanostructures, which can be addressed using low resistance contacts. In order to study and estimate the resistance of such contacts or the resistance posed by the interface(s) in such contacts, accurate test structures and evaluation techniques need to be used. The resistance posed by an interface is quantified using its specific contact resistivity (SCR), and although multiple techniques have been utilized, inaccuracies of such techniques in measuring values of SCR lesser than ( < 10 <sup xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink">-8</sup> Omega ldr cm <sup xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink">2</sup> ) have been reported. In this letter, an approach for estimating very low values of SCR (lower than the previously limiting ( < 10 <sup xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink">-8</sup> Omega ldr cm <sup xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink">2</sup> )) using a cross Kelvin resistor test structure is demonstrated using aluminum to titanium silicide ohmic contacts, with a minimum estimated SCR value of 6.0 times 10 <sup xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink">-10</sup> Omega ldr cm <sup xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink">2</sup> .