Resistance Performance Research Articles

Photothermal superhydrophobic coating for concrete: Highly effective anti/deicing performance and corrosion resistance

Superhydrophobic concrete is an effective method to prevent corrosion of internal steel bar. However, existing superhydrophobic concrete is difficult to remove the ice on the superhydrophobic concrete surface. Here, we overcame this problem by developing a photothermal superhydrophobic coating for concrete, which obtained from polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS), multi-walled carbon nanotubes (MWCNT) and further superhydrophobicity. This photothermal superhydrophobic coating showed the excellent superhydrophobicity, self-cleaning property, anti-fouling property, and the long anti-icing time. In addition, the ice on the coating would rapidly melt into the water which easily rolled off the surface under the irradiation of infrared light. This coating not only had the good chemical durability and mechanical durability, but also had the corrosion resistance performance. This work will enrich superhydrophobic concrete technology and promote the application of superhydrophobic concrete in practical building.

Experimental study of subcooled flow boiling in microchannel heat sinks integrated with different embedded pin fin arrays microstructures

The optimized microchannel heat sinks could enhance flow boiling for effectively tackling the electronics cooling. The flow boiling experiment for three microchannel heat sinks integrated with different layouts of entrenched pin fins is conducted at flow rate of 273.6–456 kg/(m2.s) and inlet subcooling of 35∼50 K. The overall/local heat transfer features, pressure drop and boiling mechanism are studied. The hybrid pattern presents earliest initial boiling and lower superheat than the microchannel heat sink with uniform pin fins arrangement at moderate and large flow rates. The trend of overall and local HTC (heat transfer coefficient) is similar, which occurs peak at onset nucleation boiling, and then decreasing with increasing heat flux. At the largest flow rate, the hybrid pattern exhibits 2.7–3.5 times peak HTC promotion than other patterns. As for lowest flow rate, the hybrid pattern does not manifest remarkably superior performance due to downstream vapor cores clogging effect. The hybrid pattern shows largest pressure drop, and the smaller inlet subcooling manifests inferior heat transfer and resistance performance. The comprehensive performance factor (CPF) is proposed, and the pattern with uniform small-sized pin fins shows optimal CPF especially for low flow rate, which is considerable compared with the reference heat sink structures until high heat flux. This study may provide some insight into the design of microchannel for flow boiling heat dissipation.

Incorporation of Graphene Oxide Quantum Dots in Gradient Layers of Polyethersulphone Nanofiltration Membranes for Nitrate Rejection from Aqueous Solution.

Graphene oxide quantum dots (GOQDs) have been widely used to prepare nanofiltration membranes due to the merits of excellent dispersity, ultrasmall size, and unique properties related to graphene. In this study, we first prepared the polyethersulphone-based nanofiltration (PES-NF) membrane via an interfacial polymerization process using a piperazine and m-phenylenediamine mixed solution as the aqueous phase. Then GOQDs were incorporated into the top-down gradient structured layers (i.e., ultrathin layer, interlayer, and substrate membrane layer) of the nanofiltration membrane, and subsequently the effect of GOQD addition on the nitrate rejection was evaluated. Compared with the pristine PES-NF membrane without the incorporation of GOQDs, the fabricated NF membrane (GOQD/PES-NF-2) incorporating GOQDs at both the ultrathin layer and interlayer exhibits more remarkable performances (an acceptable permeation flux of 52.2 L m-1 h-1 and excellent nitrate rejection of 96.3% at 0.6 MPa), the permeation flux of this membrane increases by nearly 2.4 times, and its nitrate rejection also shows a slight enhancement (∼7.6%) compared with those of PES-NF. Remarkably, at the operating pressure much lower than that required by reverse osmosis membranes, the GOQD/PES-NF-2 membrane possesses an equivalent monovalent ion rejection to reverse osmosis membranes but a higher permeation flux. Furthermore, the result of a 7 day continuous stability test validates the excellent durability of the GOQD/PES-NF-2 membrane, and its antifouling and chlorine resistance performances also outperform those of the PES-NF membrane.

Significantly Enhanced Oxidation Resistance and Electrochemical Performance of Hydrothermal Ti3C2Tx MXene and Tannic Acid Composite for High-Performance Flexible Supercapacitors.

The electrochemical performances of Ti3C2Tx MXene are severely restricted by the easy oxidation and restacking. Herein, tannic acid (TA) is introduced into Ti3C2Tx dispersion, and the mixed dispersion is further subjected to a simple hydrothermal treatment to prepare the hydrothermal Ti3C2Tx and TA composite (h-Ti3C2Tx@h-TA). Due to the decomposition of TA into gallic acid (GA), hydrothermal TA (h-TA) is a mixture of TA and GA. The strong interaction between h-TA and MXene mainly involves chemical interaction between the hydroxyl groups in h-TA and the surface/edge Ti atoms, along with numerous hydrogen bonds. The h-TA intercalation weakens MXene restacking and increases interlayer spacing, thereby improving ion transport pathways and accessibility. The chemical interaction between the hydroxyl groups of GA and the Ti atoms significantly enhances oxidation resistance and pseudocapacitive active sites. Therefore, the h-Ti3C2Tx@h-TA film electrode shows significantly enhanced capacitance (848 F·g-1 at 1 A g-1) and cycling stability (100% retention after 20 000 cycles). Moreover, flexible sandwiched supercapacitors with symmetrical h-Ti3C2Tx@h-TA electrodes exhibit a high energy density of 30.1 Wh kg-1 at a high power density of 300 W kg-1, outperforming those of Ti3C2Tx-based film electrodes and sandwiched supercapacitors reported so far. The extrusion-printed microsupercapacitors with h-Ti3C2Tx@h-TA electrodes demonstrate high areal capacitance (135 mF cm-2 at 5 mV s-1) along with energy storage performance (6.74 μWh cm-2 at 506 μW cm-2) and cycling stability (98.8% retention after 41 460 cycles), all while maintaining excellent flexibility. These impressive results indicate the great application potential of the hydrothermal Ti3C2Tx MXene and tannic acid composite in flexible energy storage devices.

Dual Cross-Linked Networks Reinforced Polyimide Foams with Outstanding Piezoelectric Properties and Heat Resistance Performance.

The application of traditional isocyanate-based polyimide (PI) foams is highly hindered due to limited flame retardancy, poor mechanical properties, and relatively single functionality. Herein, we propose an effective method to fabricate dual cross-linked polyimide/bismaleimide (PI-BMI) foams with outstanding heat resistance and enhanced mechanical properties by incorporating bis(3-ethyl-5-methyl-4-maleimidophenyl)methane (ME-BMI) as the interpenetrating network. The results show that the prepared PI-BMI composite foams exhibit enhanced mechanical properties with lightweight characteristics (23-80 kg·m-3). When the ME-BMI loading reached 120 wt %, the tensile and compressive strength of PI-BMI composite foam can reach 1.9 and 7.8 MPa, which are 9.6 and 63.3 times higher than that of pure PI foam, respectively. In comparison with PIF-0, the 10% heat loss temperature (Td,10%) of PIF-90 improved by 156 °C. Moreover, the PI-BMI foam piezoelectric sensor containing fluorine groups presents a short response time (14.22 ms), high sensitivity (0.266 V/N), and outstanding stability (10 000 cycles). Besides, the sensor can accurately monitor human activity in different states. This work provides a promising strategy for designing multifunctional PI foams, making them suitable for applications in aerospace and microelectronics.

Improving the tribological and corrosion behavior of Ni[sbnd]B coating with low boron content from optimized lead-free bath on aluminum alloys

This study focuses on producing environmentally friendly, lead-free nickel‑boron (NiB) coatings as an alternative to hard chromium coatings. Using the electroless method, the NiB coatings were fabricated from a lead-free bath, and the effects of varying B and Ni concentrations on the coatings' chemical composition, surface morphology, hardness, corrosion resistance, and wear performance were investigated. Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and X-ray diffraction (XRD) were used to analyze surface morphology and phase composition. Corrosion performance was evaluated using potentiodynamic polarization (PP) and electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS), while wear behavior was tested at sliding speeds of 20, 30, and 40 cm/s. The study highlights the critical role of sliding speed on wear mechanisms, friction coefficient, wear rate, and surface morphology. The analyses revealed that the optimal NiB coating, containing 34 g/L Ni and 3 g/L B, exhibited the highest hardness, the lowest corrosion rate, and the highest wear rate performance. The values obtained from these analyses were 891 HV for hardness, 8.87 × 10−6 mpy for corrosion rate, and 2.21 × 10−4 mm3/N·m for wear rate. The use of analysis of variance (ANOVA) identified key factors influencing these properties. The findings suggest that optimizing boron and nickel concentrations significantly enhances NiB coatings' corrosion resistance and wear performance, making them suitable for industrial applications.

Resistance performance study and hull form optimization of aquaculture vessel by CFD method

Abstract Aquaculture vessel is a novel form of deep-sea aquaculture engineering with a wide range of applications. The resistance performance of the aquaculture vessel was studied by the computational fluid dynamics method and compared with the experiment. Two optimization schemes, namely, straight bow and bulbous bow, are designed to optimize the original design, focusing on improving the bow profile. The effectiveness of the two optimization schemes in terms of resistance reduction was evaluated by the CFD method. The resistance calculated by numerical calculations was found to be in good agreement with the experimental results. The bulbous bow scheme reduces resistance better than the upright scheme, with a resistance reduction of 2.92% at 11 kn. This study can guide the overall design of an aquaculture vessel.

Experimental investigation on the longitudinal stability of the aerodynamically alleviated marine vehicle with multi-steps

To investigate the hydrodynamic performance and motion characteristics of the ultra-high-speed aerodynamically alleviated marine vehicle (AAMV) with multi-steps, a towing tank test scheme was designed and carried out at the China Special Vehicle Research Institute. The study analyzed the effects of canard angle, flap angle, longitudinal center of gravity, and displacement tonnage on the motion stability of multi-stepped AAMV at different speeds. The results indicate that the canard generates an overturning moment that reduces the resistance but brings forward the speed at which porpoising behavior occurs. Additionally, the backward shift of the longitudinal center of gravity causes motion oscillation during the high-speed planing phase, which negatively affects longitudinal stability. On the other hand, the flaps provide aerodynamic lift and restoring moments, improving the lift-drag ratio and enhancing longitudinal stability. Furthermore, while increased mass may result in higher total resistance, it can actually improve resistance performance per unit mass and improve the lift-drag ratio at cruising speed. The computational fluid dynamics (CFD) method was used to analyze the destabilization mechanism of AAMV under extreme conditions in the test. Numerical results indicate that the longitudinal stability of AAMV is directly affected by the relative positions of the center of gravity and the center of pressure. These results demonstrate the changing rules of resistance performance and longitudinal stability of AAMV under different design parameters, thus providing a powerful tool for optimizing AAMV.

The Nano-Revolution in Rubber Bushings: Boosting Mechanical Performance

Abstract A new method for manufacturing rubber bushings with unique properties has been introduced. The method involves adding alumina nanoparticles at different ratios (0.2, 0.4, 0.6, 1, 1.5, 2, 2.5, and 3) Phr to a rubber recipe consisting of 30% natural rubber, 70% styrene-butadiene rubber. The recipe also contains a constant percentage of carbon black (51 Phr). The materials were mixed for (specific time) to ensure even distribution. Extensive testing has been conducted to ensure the cured rubber meets performance standards, including evaluations of tensile strength, tear propagation, wear resistance, hardness, elasticity, and resistance to fatigue. The bush material excelled in friction resistance and long-term fatigue performance. Adding 0.6 phr Nano-Alumina further enhanced its elasticity, strength, tear resistance, and resilience. At 3 phr of Al2O3 increased Elongation, Hardness, and Fatigue resistance value.

Fabrication of Novel Polyurethane matrix-based Functional Composites with Enhanced Mechanical Performance

Thermoplastic polyurethane (TPU) has gained significant interest in several fields, including automobile steering wheels, and the electronics sector due to their easier processability, abrasive resistance, and self-lubricating performances. However, their strong inherent flammability and significant smoke and heat production during burning limit their industrial applications. Therefore, its applicability can be enhanced with the addition of high-strength reinforcement and making them antibacterial and flame-retardant. This research is designed to examine the influence of zirconium phosphate (ZrP) and zinc oxide (ZnO) nanoparticles on the novel polyurethane/glass fiber reinforced composites for flame retardant and antibacterial applications with improved mechanical performance. Three different types of novel polyurethane (PU1, PU2, PU3) matrices were prepared using different recipes, and 7% ZrP and 5% ZnO nanoparticles were added to the polyurethane matrices separately, and their corresponding composite samples were fabricated using glass reinforcement. Mechanical i.e., Charpy impact, hardness and tensile, and functional i.e., flame retardancy (FR) and antibacterial tests were performed to compare their performance. Mechanical testing results showed that PU3-based composite samples showed the highest values of impact force, hardness, and tensile strength in both ZrP and ZnO nanoparticle-based composite samples. Furthermore, 7% ZrP-PU3 composite exhibited the best performance of flame retardancy due to the presence of hexamethylene diisocyanates (HDI) content. Likewise, the 5% ZnO-PU3-based composite exhibited the highest antibacterial activity along with enhanced mechanical performance.

Fabrication of highly carboxylated nanofibrous aerogels under mild conditions and their protein adsorption performance

The development of high-performance media for protein adsorption in bio-purification is highly desired, particularly in biological pharmaceuticals. In this study, we demonstrate a simple, versatile and mild strategy to construct a nanofibrous aerogel (NFA)-based adsorption media for protein purification. Pyromellitic dianhydride (PMDA) was selected to in-situ graft onto poly(ethylene-co-vinyl alcohol) (PE-co-PVA) nanofibers in aerogels through liquid phase grafting. The obtained PE-co-PVA/PMDA NFAs (PPNAs) possessed superb underwater elasticity, compression fatigue resistance and shape-memory performance. With an open porous network, abundant adsorption ligands, and surface hydrophilicity, the PPNAs exhibited a significant adsorption capacity of 1019.71 mg/g and a short equilibrium time of 3.0 h, surpassing that of commercial and reported nanofiber-based adsorbents. Additionally, the PPNAs demonstrated good dynamic adsorption performance for protein driven solely by gravity. Furthermore, the PPNAs showed reusability, selectivity, acid and alkaline resistance, and practical potential of extracting lysozyme form egg white solution. The successful scale-up of such aerogel-based adsorbents can open up new way for the development and design of next-generation protein adsorption media for bio-purification applications.

Genetic programming-based algorithms application in modeling the compressive strength of steel fiber-reinforced concrete exposed to elevated temperatures

Steel-fiber-reinforced concrete (SFRC) has replaced traditional concrete in the construction sector, improving fracture resistance and post-cracking performance. However, extreme temperatures degrade concrete's material characteristics including stiffness and strength. The construction industry increasingly embraces machine learning (ML) to estimate concrete properties and optimize cost and time accurately. This study employs independent ML methods, gene expression programming (GEP), multi-expression programming (MEP), XGBoost, and Bayesian estimation model (BES) to predict SFRC compressive strength (CS) at high temperatures. 307 experimental data points from published studies were utilized to develop the models. The models were trained using 70 % of the dataset, with 15 % for validation and 15 % for testing. Iterative hyperparameter adjustment and trial-and-error refining achieved optimum predictions. All the models were evaluated using correlation (R) values for training, validation, and testing datasets. MEP showed slightly lower R-values of 0.923, 0.904, and 0.949 than GEP, which performed consistently with 0.963, 0.967, and 0.961. XGBoost had the greatest training R-value of 0.997 but dropped in validation (0.918) and testing (0.896). BES model exhibited commendable performance with scores of 0.986, 0.944, and 0.897. GEP and XGBoost exhibited great accuracy, with GEP sustaining constant accuracy across all datasets, highlighting its potency in predicting CS. Interpreting model predictions using SHapley Additive exPlanation (SHAP) highlighted temperature over heating rate. CS improved significantly as the steel fiber volume fraction (Vf) reached 1.5 %, plateauing thereafter. The proposed models are valid and accurate, providing designers and builders with a practical and adaptable method for estimating strength in SFRC structural applications, particularly under high-temperature conditions.

Enhanced wear resistance, corrosion behavior, and thermal management in magnesium alloys with PEO coatings

The harsh conditions encountered in aerospace applications, such as high operational temperatures, abrasive wear, and corrosive substances, present significant challenges to the performance and longevity of magnesium alloy components. To create a coating with superior wear resistance, corrosion resistance, and high emissivity, this study employs plasma electrolytic oxidation (PEO) technology to develop a nanocomposite coating doped with carbon nanotubes (CNTs) and hexagonal boron nitride (h-BN). The results demonstrate that the MgO-BN/CNTs coating with an emissivity of 0.82 reduces the equilibrium temperature of the 5 W LED junction by nearly 10 °C compared to the magnesium alloy substrate, showing improved radiative heat dissipation performance. Due to the ability of the porous structure to accommodate abrasive particles, coupled with the lubricating effect of h-BN and CNTs, the friction coefficient of the MgO-BN/CNTs coating is 0.57, which is 21 % lower than that of the MgO coating. Additionally, the coating exhibits excellent corrosion protection, attributed to the dense microstructure and chemical inertness of h-BN. The findings demonstrate that the strategic incorporation of h-BN and CNTs into PEO coatings effectively improves the wear resistance, corrosion resistance, and thermal management performance of magnesium alloys.

Study on factors affecting slip resistance performance of floor panels

Abstract In order to improve the slip resistence performance of floor panels used in escalators and moving walkways, as well as ensure the safety, the paper analyzes the impact of different factors on the slip resistence performance of floor panels through experiments. The test results reveal that the surface treatment degree of floor panels, environmental temperature and humidity, and passengers’ footwear all exert varying degress of impact on the slip resistence performance.

Effective optimization method of asphalt binders and asphalt mixtures based on the two-parameter of contraction and relaxation

Thermal cracking is one of the primary distresses of asphalt pavement which is a complex process. Evaluating the Low-temperature Performance (LTP) of asphalt mixtures accurately and conducting material optimization analysis is not only crucial for understanding the thermal cracking mechanism of asphalt mixtures but also serve as the basis for enhancing their thermal cracking resistance performance. However, current research has not sufficiently interpreted the mechanism of thermal cracking. It is segmentary that optimizes asphalt mixtures solely based on their ultimate strength, strain, and so on at certain low-temperature points. Therefore, this study closely integrated the thermal cracking mechanism and proposed a two-parameter optimization method. Firstly, clarifying the decisive role of the contraction and relaxation relationship in determining LTP through the Thermal Stress Restrained Specimen Test (TSRST), thermal contraction test, and low-temperature relaxation test. Secondly, quantizing the impact of the aggregates skeleton and then using a two-parameter method to analyze the comprehensive effects on LTP of asphalt mixtures. Finally, summarizing the material optimization method of asphalt binder-first, aggregates-second based on the multiple linear regression method. This paper simplified the evaluation method and provided a basis for material selection and design for improving the thermal cracking resistance of asphalt mixtures.

Co single-atom-embedded MXene nanosheets as catalytic UF membrane instant water purification with fouling resistant performance

Two-dimensional (2D) catalytic ultrafiltration membranes, tightly assembled with MXene (Ti3C2Tx) lamellae and significantly dispersed Co single atoms (∼ 2.4 wt%), were prepared by a simple solvothermal and low-temperature reduction method. The Co-MXene membrane overcomes the conventional trade-off between selectivity and permeability, and demonstrated an instant water purification (100 % carbamazepine degradation within 240 ms) and a high membrane permeability (∼900 LMH/bar). It has been confirmed that coordinatively unsaturated Co-N1O2 accelerated electron transfer and activated the formation of 1O2 and high-valent Co-oxo species. Nano-confinement channels assembled by the small-sized lamellae facilitated the transport of water molecules. A stable treatment performance with natural surface water was achieved at 3000 L/m2. Good anti-fouling capabilities were also demonstrated with a 96 % alleviation of membrane fouling in the presence of Pseudomonas aeruginosa. These comprehensive mechanistic investigations and stable performances provide a valuable basis for preparing SACs-catalyzed membranes with highly dispersed single atoms and high permeability.

Enhanced corrosion protection performance using polysilazane-derived amorphous SiCN ceramic coating

In this work, a polymer-derived silicon carbonitride (SiCN) ceramic layer has been deposited on stainless steel 304 (SS304) to enhance the corrosion resistance of SS304 in a seawater environment. SS304 is dip-coated with a polysilazane solution followed by pyrolysis under argon environment at 800 °C to develop SiCN ceramic layer with a thickness of about 3 μm on SS304. Structural characterization of the prepared samples was performed using Fourier transform infrared (FTIR), X-ray diffraction (XRD), Raman spectroscopy, and scanning electron microscopy (SEM). Potentiodynamic polarization tests of SS304 and SiCN-coated SS304 were performed in 0.6 M NaCl solution. SiCN-coated SS304 showed very low corrosion current density of 4.2 × 10−10 A/cm2 whereas corrosion current density of uncoated SS304 was measured to be 1.52 × 10−7 A/cm2. Excellent corrosion resistance performance of SiCN-coated SS304 was observed as confirmed by electrochemical impedance spectroscopic (EIS) measurements.

Improved wear and corrosion resistance of additively manufactured SS316L by laser remelting process

Directed energy deposition is an efficient and flexible additive manufacturing technique that has broad application prospects due to its ability to fabricate intricate structures with heterogeneous properties. In this study, the laser-based directed energy deposition (L-DED) technique is employed to deposit an austenitic stainless steel 316L powder at a significantly high deposition rate. In recent developments, laser remelting (LR) has been explored as a superior alternative for enhancing the surface integrity of the components produced by L-DED. This study endeavours to examine the impacts of LR, emphasizing the improvement of wear and corrosion resistance. The grain refinement is achieved through laser remelting, which eventually leads to a 34 % improvement in micro–hardness over the as-deposited sample; as a result of increased micro–hardness, wear resistance improved by 66 % when compared to the as-deposited specimen. Furthermore, the corrosion resistance performance of the laser-remelted samples is compared with as-deposited samples by electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS) in a solution of 3.5 % NaCl solution. The remelted sample showed improved corrosion resistance, which is attributed to the grain refinement due to rapid solidification in LR. This study demonstrates that laser remelting can be an effective way to improve the wear and corrosion resistance of SS316L, which enlarges its application in harsh environments.

Experimental investigation on the frost resistance of RCC layers with various interface treatments

This research investigates the influence of various interface treatment methods on the frost resistance performance of Roller Compacted Concrete (RCC) layers. Freeze-thaw cycle tests were conducted on RCC with interfaces treated using cement mortar, expansion agent mortar, and nano-SiO2 mortar. The study evaluated shear failure modes, shear strength, crack expansion, pore structure, and liquid uptake of the RCC interface after freeze-thaw cycles under different treatment methods. Results reveal that expansion agent mortar and nano-SiO2 mortar improve the shear strength of RCC after freeze-thaw cycles more effectively than cement mortar. The freeze-thaw cycles increase the width and expansion rate of cracks at the RCC interface during the shear process, while mortar treatments help delay crack development. Additionally, the pore volume at the RCC interface gradually increases, and the uniformity of pore distribution decreases under freeze-thaw cycles. During liquid uptake, mortar treatments slow down the upward migration of liquids by improving the pore structure at the interface. The liquid uptake of RCC exhibits a distinct linear relationship with its shear strength and pore structure. As liquid uptake time increases, water first fills larger pores before gradually entering smaller ones. Freeze-thaw cycles cause an increase in pore volume and enlargement, which leads to greater liquid uptake. Based on the damage mechanism of the RCC interface under freeze-thaw conditions, a model of shear strength degradation due to freeze-thaw cycles was established, aligning well with experimental results. Mechanism analysis indicates that nano-SiO2 and expansion agents enhance frost resistance by filling interface pores and cracks through reactions with certain compounds, thereby improving the microstructure.

Tribological Analysis of Surface Textures in Porcelain Tiles for Enhancing Pedestrian Walkway Safety

Due to their durability and aesthetic appeal, porcelain tiles have become a staple in modern construction and interior design. However, the persistent challenge of mitigating slip hazards, particularly in moist conditions, remains a critical concern for pedestrian safety. This study investigates the slip resistance performance of porcelain tiles, focusing on the influence of varying surface textures. The study clarifies the intricate relationship between surface texture and slip resistance through comprehensive dynamic friction tests involving four distinct porcelain tile samples and three different shoe samples conducted under arid, damp, and lathered conditions. While dry conditions showcase robust traction, moist environments underscore the significance of surface textures in enhancing grip. Moreover, the study introduces an operational scale of surface roughness, delineating optimal texture boundaries for maximal slip resistance. The implications of these findings extend beyond mere material characterisation, offering actionable insights for architects, designers, and safety professionals to enhance pedestrian safety in diverse settings. By bridging the gap between material science and real-world safety concerns, this research paves the way for innovative porcelain tile designs that prioritise safety without compromising aesthetic appeal.