Residual Strain Profiles Research Articles

Assessment of residual strain in laser shock peened additive manufactured Inconel 718 using synchrotron X-ray diffraction

The through-thickness residual strain profile due to laser shock peening (LSP) of an additively-manufactured IN718 sample is shown for the first time. The results provide tantalising insight into the potential of fatigue life extension of additive-manufactured samples using LSP. Residual strains were measured in as-manufactured and peened samples using state-of-the-art synchrotron radiation. Significant beneficial compressive in-plane residual strains, extending to 1.0 mm depth, were observed due to the peening process. No phase changes were observed due to LSP. A periodic strain variation was observed arising from the layer-by-layer manufacturing strategy of the samples. The peened sample showed no increase in diffraction peak width in the near-surface regions. This is contrary to reported studies using wrought laser shock peened alloys and suggests less grain disruption in additively-manufactured peened samples. The results are timely given a current drive to adopt additive-manufacturing for a step-change in efficiency of aero-engine component production.

Approximate residual stress and plastic strain profiles for laser-peened alloy 600 surfaces

This paper presents approximate in-depth residual stress and plastic strain profiles for laser-peened alloy 600 surface via FE analysis. In approximations, effects of the initial welding residual stress and the number of shots are quantified. Based on FE analysis results, residual stress profiles are quantified by two variables; the maximum difference in stress before and after LSP, and the depth up to which the compressive residual stress exists. Plastic strain profiles are quantified by one variable, the maximum equivalent plastic strain at the surface. The proposed profiles are validated by comparing with published LSP experimental results for welded plates. Effects of the initial welding residual stress and the number of shots on these variables are discussed. The proposed profile can be directly applied to predict the mitigation effect of LSP on PWSCC and to efficiently perform structural integrity assessment of laser peened nuclear components.

Fatigue strength prediction methodology of shot-peened materials

Shot peening is used to enhance fatigue strength, but it is usually neglected by manufacturing design. The main purpose of the present work is to suggest strategies capable of making connection between the process conditions and the fatigue strength. In the present paper, fatigue lives of shot-peened parts were predicted. A new multiaxial HCF model, based on the Crossland criterion, was proposed; it integrates the favourable effects of shot peening that are the combined effect of compressive residual stresses and strain hardening. The plastic strain field accounts for the strain hardening. In order to compute residual stress and equivalent plastic strain profiles due to the repeated impacts, we have modelled and simulated, through a finite element method, the impact of the shot dynamics resulting from the process. The relaxation of induced compressive residual stresses, over the fatigue life, has been considered. For the purpose of spotlighting the capability of the present methodology, the predictions were compared with existing experimental data. This study demonstrates that the single effect of stabilized residual stress is not sufficient to explain the full enhancement of fatigue resistance. The proposed fatigue criterion provides a conservative prediction in terms of endurance limit.

Neutron scattering study of strain behaviour of porous rocks subjected to heating and unconfined uniaxial compression

Neutron scattering (at ENGIN-X) was used to examine strain distributions in two hydrocarbon reservoir rock types (i.e. sandstone and chalk) under uniaxial stress (up to 35 MPa) at temperature as high as 70 °C to utilise the advantages of neutron scattering to draw a detailed picture of the structural evolution in the porous rock core plugs subjected to heating. Each sample was cylindrical in shape (i.e. 38.1 mm diameter and 48 mm length). The corresponding strain free lattice parameter (d0) for each sample at each measurement point at 5 MPa compressive stress condition were obtained by testing at 25°C. Various microstructural and material characterisation were carried out using X-ray diffraction, energy dispersive spectroscopy and scanning electron microscopy. Comparison of Rietveld refinement for multiple peak of crystalline phases in both samples were made. Results are discussed in terms of the influence of temperature and compressive stress on the residual strain profile along radial direction of cylindrical rock sample. It was found that the sandstone sample has significantly high strain bearing capability when compared with the chalk, however, the overall strain profile from the central axis in the radial direction looked very similar.

Mapping residual strain induced by cold working and by laser shock peening using neutron transmission spectroscopy

This paper presents 2D mapping of residual strains, induced by cold expansion and laser shock peening processing of aluminium alloy samples, by using Bragg edge neutron transmission. Neutron transmission uses information contained in the neutron beam transmitted through a sample. It is shown that neutron transmission strain mapping with high spatial resolution can provide important insights into the distribution of residual strains associated with processing of materials. The residual strain field around a cold-expanded hole can be revealed in detail, as can be the residual strain profile associated with laser peening. Results are correlated with measurements obtained by conventional neutron diffraction and incremental hole drilling. The residual strain variation around the cold-expanded hole and the depth of compressive residual strain generated by the peening process were captured with high spatial resolution, showing the advantages of neutron transmission over other well-established strain measurement methods by non-destructively generating a map of residual strains over a large area.

Stress generation during the quenching of large AA2618 forgings: Finite element computations and validation against neutron diffraction measurements

Solutionising and quenching are key steps in the fabrication of heat treatable aluminium parts such as AA2618 compressor impellers for turbochargers. Quenching not only dictates the mechanical characteristics of the product but also induces residual stresses that can cause unacceptable distortions during machining and unfavourable stresses in service. Predicting and controlling stress generation during quenching of large AA2618 forgings is therefore of great interest. Since possible precipitation during quenching may affect the local yield strength of the material and thus impact the level of macro-scale residual stresses, consideration of this phenomenon is required.A phenomenological material model accounting for precipitation in a simple way is used instead of modelling in detail precipitation that occurs during quenching. The required model parameters are identified using a limited number of tensile tests achieved after representative interrupted cooling paths in a Gleeble machine. This model is used in FE computations of stress generation during quenching of large massive AA2618 forgings for compressor impellers. The residual strain and stress profiles are compared with neutron diffraction measurements carried out at SALSA and STRESS-SPEC diffractometers in as-quenched and in T6 conditions. It turned out that the residual stress predictions by FE modelling might be wrong if precipitation is not taken into account properly in the material model.

High resolution imaging and analysis of residual elastic strain in an additively manufactured turbine blade

Using recently developed microchannel plate (MCP) neutron area detectors at a pulsed neutron source provides a method of fast non-destructive imaging and characterisation of advanced materials at unprecedented spatial resolution. The energy resolved neutron transmission spectrum can be found from the neutron time of flight (ToF), this provides valuable information about the crystallographic structure within the sample such as the average residual elastic strain in the incident beam direction. By measuring this spectrum at a number of sample orientations information is built up about the strain distribution throughout the specimen. The energy-resolved neutron transmission spectrum of an additively manufactured turbine blade was measured at the Engin-X instrument, ISIS, UK. A high resolution three-dimensional reconstruction of the neutron attenuation coefficient of the blade was recovered, then analysis of the energy resolved spectrum gave insight into the underlying residual elastic strain profile imparted by the advanced manufacturing process.

A comparison of split sleeve cold expansion in thick and thin plates

Split sleeve cold expansion is a widely used process in the aerospace industry to enhance the fatigue life of rivet holes in the aircraft structures. In the experimental investigation presented in this article, the full-field in-plane residual strains and the out-of-plane surface deformations around open cold-expanded holes were measured using stereoscopic digital image correlation in aluminium specimens of two different thicknesses giving thickness-to-diameter ratios of 0.25 and 1. The results demonstrate that the mechanics of hole deformation is significantly different for the thick and thin specimens. The specimens of 1.6 mm thickness underwent a combination of global bending and significant local warping during the cold expansion process. This localised warping caused a decrease in the minimum principal residual strains close to the edge of the hole, which cannot be predicted by the existing theoretical models as they do not account for the complex out-of-plane deformations that have a significant influence on the shape of the resulting residual strain profiles. In contrast, 6.35-mm-thick specimens did not bend globally mainly because of the higher second moment of area of their cross sections. The material close to the hole edge bulges out from both the faces of the specimen as a result of plastic deformation during the cold expansion process and the out-of-plane deformations are much more localised and lower in magnitude in comparison to the thin specimens. The plastic zone developed around the expanded hole is more axisymmetric and larger in size for the thick specimens. These results imply that the existing split sleeve cold expansion process is not as effective in creating a uniform compressive residual elastic stress field around the fastener holes in thin as it is in the thick specimens.

Numerical modelling of plane strain plasticity induced crack closure effects for bimaterial interfacial cracks

The effects of plane strain plasticity induced crack closure on fatigue cracks located at the interface of dissimilar steel materials are presented using finite element modelling. Based on the study, it has been observed that bimaterial cracks produced unsymmetrical residual plastic strains and crack profiles in the crack wakes. It is seen that Young’s modulus and yield stress mismatch have profound effects on the development of unsymmetrical residual plastic strain and crack profiles, whereas the effect of Poisson’s ratio is insignificant. However, it has been found that for the material properties considered, low value of crack closure levels have been identified.

Neutron Strain Tomography using the Radon Transform

Determining bulk residual elastic strains is a topic of critical importance for predictive modelling and materials testing. Although there are numerous approaches to obtaining this information the process is often time-consuming and frequentlyinvolves destructive sectioning of the sample. This paper presents the latest developments in Bragg-edge neutron strain tomography which offers a rapid, non-destructive means of determining residual elastic strains in polycrystalline materials with high spatial resolution.Neutron strain tomography utilises the fact that the energy-resolved transmission spectrum of thermal neutrons froma polycrystalline sample displays well-defined, sudden jumps in intensity known as ‘Bragg-edges’, which reveal information about the average residual elastic strain throughout the sample volume. By measuring the spatially resolved transmission spectrum for a number of different sample orientations it is possible to recover the underlying three-dimensional residual elastic strain profile. This process is analogous to conventional absorption tomography where a three-dimensional map of the sample density is recovered from a lower order two-dimensional set of integral absorption measurements. Using the newly developed microchannel plate TimePixneutron detectorin time-of-flight experiments, elastic strains can in principle be recovered with 10 um spatial resolution. The current work demonstrates a model-free method for direct inversion of the average strain profiles obtained from Bragg-edge measurements using results from linear elasticity theory and the Radon transform, which is the basis for absorption tomography reconstructions. We demonstrate this method in simulation on an axisymmetric sample with analytic strain profile before applying it to a ‘real-world’ sample where the results are validated against conventional neutron diffraction and hole drilling measurements.

Residual strain scanning of alumina-based ceramic composites by neutron diffraction

Residual strain profiles were measured by neutron diffraction in alumina-aluminum titanate ceramic composites sintered at two different temperatures, namely 1450 and 1550°C. The results show that irrespective of the direction and the sintering temperature, the obtained profiles are almost flat, with very similar results for both temperatures. In addition, the results demonstrate that the alumina is in compression whereas the aluminium titanate is subjected to tensile residual stresses.

Residual stress redistribution in shot peened samples subject to mechanical loading

Shot peening is a well-established surface treatment process that imparts large compressive residual stresses onto the surface and at shallow depths to retard initiation and growth of fatigue cracks. The plastic deformation developed during the surface treatment sets up a constraint that retains compressive stresses on the surface balanced by tensile residual stresses in the interior. However, component service histories that produce subsequent plastic deformation may redistribute these residual stresses. In most engineering components, this additional plastic deformation is localized to stress concentration sites such as holes, notches, and fillets. In the case of gross plastic deformation where the entire cross section experiences material yielding the residual stress profile may redistribute, resulting in tensile stresses on the outside surface balanced by compression in the interior. This paper describes a series of experiments combined with models to explain the redistribution in residual stress depth profiles subject to applied stresses producing gross plastic strains in shot peened laboratory specimens. The initial room temperature residual stress and plastic strain profiles provide initial conditions for predictions. Model predictions correlate well with experimental results on shot peened dogbone specimens subject to single cycle and fatigue loading conditions at elevated temperature. Experiments on shot peened notched specimens do not exhibit the same stress redistribution even for larger applied stresses.

Characterisation of Residual Stress State and Distortion in Welded Plates Stress Engineered by Local Mechanical Tensioning

Local mechanical tensioning is one of the most efficient and industrially relevant stress engineering techniques to modify weld residual stress field and subsequently reduce buckling distortion. However, application of rolling load and its magnitude need to be optimised for an energy efficient rolling process. In the present study gas metal arc butt welded plates of low carbon mild steel were rolled by a dual roller in different rolling configuration (top and reverse side rolling) and with different magnitude of rolling load. All the plates were rolled post welding. Residual strain profiles of the post weld rolled plates were measured, using the SALSA strain scanner, and the in-plane stress were characterized. Average distortion of the rolled plates was correlated with the residual stress. Reverse rolling was found to be more effective in removing distortion while the stress profiles did not show any significant reduction of the peak stress.

Analysis of Residual Strain Profiles in Distorted Aluminum Engine Blocks by Neutron Diffraction

Analysis of Residual Strain Profiles in Distorted Aluminum Engine Blocks by Neutron Diffraction

Development of crystallographic-orientation-dependent internal strains around a fatigue-crack tip during overloading and underloading

Abstract In-situ neutron diffraction was employed to directly measure the crystallographic-orientation-dependent (i.e. hkl) internal strains as a function of distance from the crack tip on the pre-cracked Hastelloy C-2000 compact-tension specimen. Both in-plane (IP) and through-thickness (TT) strain evolutions for various grain orientations were examined during tensile overloading and compressive underloading cycles. After overloading, underloading and their combination loadings were applied and unloaded, the significantly different {hkl} residual strain profiles were obtained in the vicinity of the crack tip. The load responses of the {200} grain orientation in both the IP and TT directions were more significant than those of any other orientations. It is suggested that the different orientation-dependent strain distributions around the crack tip are caused by the combined effects of elastic and plastic anisotropy of each {hkl} reflection upon loading and the subsequent development of residual stresses generated near the crack tip during unloading as a result of the plastic deformation.

Strain profiles and radii of semiconductor rolled‐up tubes made by a single material

AbstractSingle‐material rolled‐up microtubes provide an opportunity to study the processes of strain relaxation and defect formation near the interface of strained‐layer semiconductor heterostructures. We study theoretically tubes formed by a single strained Si layer grown beyond the critical thickness on a Ge substrate. The residual strain accumulated in the Si layer causes the layer to roll after it is released from the substrate by etching. Computer simulations are carried out using Keating's valence force field method, with uniform and non‐uniform residual (initial) strain profiles and different strained layer widths. We show that the radius of the tubes is affected by a combination of these two factors and thus by the total elastic deformation present before rolling, a larger total deformation resulting in a smaller tube radius. However, uniform and non‐uniform residual strain profiles can be easily distinguished by analyzing the final profiles of the azimuthal and the radial strain components.

A non-destructive experimental investigation of elastic plastic interfaces of autofrettaged thick-walled cylindrical aluminium high pressure vessels

Positions of elastic plastic interfaces play a vital role in safe design and safe use of high pressure vessels. The ENGIN-X neutron diffractometer at the ISIS facility was used to measure the residual strain profiles in a series of aluminium vessels which had been subjected to different pressure levels. The positions of elastic plastic interfaces of the autofrettaged pressure vessels were identified. The results revealed that the residual strain magnitude and the depth of the plastic region will increase with increasing autofrettage pressure level. When autofrettage pressure produces an elastic-plastic boundary at a greater depth than the geometric mean position of the vessel wall, reverse yielding will occur, hence the loss of the vessels’ elastic ability to its subsequent loading. The neutron experimental results agreed well with both the suggestions from existing literatures and the results from FE simulations.

Residual Strain and Fracture Response of Al2O3 Coatings Deposited via APS and HVOF Techniques

The aim of this investigation was to nondestructively evaluate the residual stress profile in two commercially available alumina/substrate coating systems and relate residual stress changes with the fracture response. Neutron diffraction, due to its high penetration depth, was used to measure residual strain in conventional air plasma-sprayed (APS) and finer powder high velocity oxy-fuel (HVOF (θ-gun))-sprayed Al2O3 coating/substrate systems. The purpose of this comparison was to ascertain if finer powder Al2O3 coatings deposited via θ-gun can provide improved residual stress and fracture response in comparison to conventional APS coatings. To obtain a through thickness residual strain profile with high resolution, a partially submerged beam was used for measurements near the coating surface, and a beam submerged in the coating and substrate materials near the coating-substrate interface. By using the fast vertical scanning method, with careful leveling of the specimen using theodolites, the coating surface and the coating/substrate interface were located with an accuracy of about 50 μm. The results show that the through thickness residual strain in the APS coating was mainly tensile, whereas the HVOF coating had both compressive and tensile residual strains. Further analysis interlinking Vickers indentation fracture behavior using acoustic emission (AE) was conducted. The microstructural differences along with the nature and magnitude of the residual strain fields had a direct effect on the fracture response of the two coatings during the indentation process.

Synchrotron strain scanning for residual stress measurement in cold-drawn steel rods

Cold-drawn steel rods and wires retain significant residual stresses as a consequence of the manufacturing process. These residual stresses are known to be detrimental for the mechanical properties of the wires and their durability in aggressive environments. Steel makers are aware of the problem and have developed post-drawing processes to try and reduce the residual stresses on the wires. The present authors have studied this problem for a number of years and have performed a detailed characterization of the residual stress state inside cold-drawn rods, including both experimental and numerical techniques. High-energy synchrotron sources have been particularly useful for this research. The results have shown how residual stresses evolve as a consequence of cold-drawing and how they change with subsequent post-drawing treatments. The authors have been able to measure for the first time a complete residual strain profile along the diameter in both phases (ferrite and cementite) of a cold-drawn steel rod.

Neutron diffraction residual strain measurements in nanostructured hydroxyapatite coatings for orthopaedic implants

The failure of an orthopaedic implant can be initiated by residual strain inherent to the hydroxyapatite coating (HAC). Knowledge of the through-thickness residual strain profile in the thermally sprayed hydroxyapatite coating/substrate system is therefore important in the development of a new generation of orthopaedic implants. As the coating microstructure is complex, non-destructive characterization of residual strain, e.g. using neutron diffraction, provides a useful measure of through thickness strain profile without altering the stress field. This first detailed study using a neutron diffraction technique, non-destructively evaluates the through thickness strain measurement in nanostructured hydroxyapatite plasma sprayed coatings on a titanium alloy substrate (as-sprayed, heat treated, and heat treated then soaked in simulated body fluid (SBF)). The influence of crystallographic plane orientation on the residual strain measurement is shown to indicate texturing in the coating. This texturing is expected to influence both the biological and fracture response of HA coatings. Results are discussed in terms of the influence of heat-treatment and SBF on the residual stress profile for these biomedical coatings. The results show that the through thickness residual strain in all three coatings was different for different crystallographic planes but was on average tensile. It is also concluded that the heat-treatment and simulated body fluid exposure had a significant effect on the residual strain profile in the top layers of HAC.