Residential Water Research Articles

Exploring behavioral responses to a residential water tariff reform

Water demand is often found to be relatively price-inelastic, with substantial percentages of water consumption irresponsive to price changes. This does not mean that households are insensitive to price changes or unresponsive to tariff reforms. In order to explore the latter, and using Latent Class Models, we have classified households into a series of distinct types according to how they switch between consumption tiers in response to changes in their water tariff. We then identified key drivers of this switching behavior, proposing that not only tariff-related variables but also sociodemographic, attitudinal, and information conditions define switching profiles. Our empirical exercise exploits information on water consumption and tariffs from 878 households in Granada (Spain) for the years 2010 and 2011 (when a new tariff structure was implemented), as well as a survey that collected additional information about households characteristics. • We classify households into five distinct groups base on their water consumption behavior after a tariff reform. • The group of households who reduce their consumption are more likely to be concerned about the environment. • The groups who are less likely underestimating their bill exhibit an inverse link between water prices and consumption. • The group predicted to be largest switched to a higher consumption tier, even though that led to an increase in their marginal price.

Development and characterization a novel leakage-proof form stable composite of graphitic carbon nitride and fatty alcohol for thermal energy storage

The form-stabilization ability of the produced graphitic carbon nitride (g-C3N4) for preventing the leakage of stearyl alcohol (SAOH) as promising organic phase change material (O-PCM) was investigated comprehensively. The SEM analysis showed that the g-C3N4 had well defined pores which is capable to confine the molten SAOH in them. The FTIR and XRD confirm the chemical compatibility of g-C3N4 and SAOH. The differential scanning calorimetry thermogram showed that the melting and freezing temperature of the FS-OPCMs including 70 wt% SAOH were 54.57 °C and 55.25 °C with respective high latent heats as 191 kJ/kg and 187 kJ/kg respectively. The thermal aging test for 1000 melt/freeze cycles confirmed that structure and thermal degradation durability are excellent. The thermal conductivity of developed FS-OPCM is enhanced by 122 %, which were resulted in about 50–54 % reduction in the charging/discharging time of FS-OPCM relative to the SAOH. The results exposed that the developed g-C3N4/SAOH (70 wt%) composite can be considered as potential solar energy storage material in different implementations such thermal cooling of photovoltaic panels, automotive and electronic units as well as solar residential water heating and passive solar space heating.

Effects of environmental and agronomic factors on pond water quality within an intensive agricultural landscape in subtropical southern China

Water quality deterioration, such as eutrophication, can contribute to the degradation of farm pond ecosystems, threatening numerous ecological services and socioeconomic benefits. However, the variability of water quality and the complexity of influencing variables pose large uncertainties for pond management practices and watershed planning. This study integrated a self-organizing map (SOM) and partial least squares structural equation modeling (PLS-SEM) to evaluate the nitrogen (N) and phosphorus (P) variations in 39 typical farm ponds in the Dongting Lake basin, and related the variations to pond internal factors, external environment, and agronomic management. The results indicated that 39 monitored farm ponds faced a high risk of eutrophication owing to high N and P levels, and that total N (TN), total P (TP), and particulate P (PP) generally exceeded the threshold of level V surface water quality standards in China (2.0 mg N L−1 and 0.2 mg P L−1). Simultaneously, pond water quality showed high spatiotemporal variability, and pollution hotspots occurred mostly during the overlapping periods of fallow-dry-winter and planting-rainy-spring. Based on the constructed SEM model, external environmental factors (meteorology, catchment landscape composition, configuration, topography, and soil chemical properties), pond internal characteristics, and agronomic management combined explained 60.2 ± 2.9 % and 54.2 ± 3.1 % of the N and P variations, respectively. There were intricate interactions among the above latent variables, including such meteorology positively moderated the paths of soil chemical properties→pond P and landscape composition→pond N and P; landscape composition, soil, and pond internal characteristics mediated the effects of other variables on variations of N and P. The total effects (indirect effects + direct effects) of landscape composition on the variations of pond N and P were higher than those of other variables. Among all the indicators composing latent variables, agricultural and residential land area percentage, rainfall, water depth, and fish farming were relatively important in pond water quality variations. The constructed model and analytical results offer essential information for the accurate management and restoration of pond water quality.

Estimating the Suppression Performance of an Electronically Controlled Residential Water Mist System from BS 8458:2015 Fire Test Data

It is commonly assumed in fire modelling that suppression systems can control the heat release rate of a fire. However, many performance-based assumptions are derived from experimental data for sprinklers, and uncertainty remains for their application to water mist systems. In the UK, residential water mist systems are usually tested to the BS 8458:2015 standard, but the heat release rate in these tests is not quantified and focus is instead placed on thermocouple temperatures. This paper details a series of fire tests to the BS 8458:2015 standard for an electronically controlled water mist system. The paper also includes B-RISK zone modelling of these tests to estimate the suppression performance of the system, comparing model outputs to thermocouple test data. Three traditional suppression assumptions, historically derived from experimental data for sprinklers, have been adopted in the zone modelling to examine whether their application following system activation can be extended to the tested water mist system. The work indicates that applying these suppression assumptions remains reasonable in the context of the performance of the tested water mist system, noting the constraints of the test methods in representing a limited number of fire scenarios.

Exposure assessment of per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) and disinfection by-products (DBPs) in drinking water during pregnancy

BACKGROUND AND AIM: Prenatal exposure to per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) and disinfection by-products (DBPs) have been linked to multiple adverse birth outcomes in epidemiological studies. The aim of this study was to comprehensively assess exposure to these chemicals in drinking water during pregnancy in the Barcelona Life Study Cohort (BiSC). METHODS: A total of 1086 pregnant women living in the Barcelona Metropolitan area were recruited at the first trimester of pregnancy and followed by surveys until delivery (2018-2021). Water ingestion habits were ascertained at the first and third trimesters through questionnaires. Tap water samples were collected in a subset (N=105) during the 3rd trimester to analyze 35 PFAS. Routinely monitored DBPs (trihalomethanes, THMs) were obtained from the local public health authority for the pregnancy period (N=183). PFAS and DBPs concentrations were modelled based on geolocation and temporal variation to predict concentrations in the residential water supply of each participant from conception until delivery. RESULTS: 5/35 PFAS were detected, namely perfluoropentanoic acid (PFPeA), perfluorohexanoic acid (PFHxA), perfluoroheptanoic acid (PFHpA), perfluorobutane sulfonic acid, (PFBS), and perfluorooctane sulfonic acid (PFOS), at median (Interquartile range; IQR) concentrations (ng/L), respectively, of 5.7(4.3-8.3), 12.0(10.5-12.0), 3.4(2.5-4.7), 8.3(7.2-10.5), and 13.0(11.8-14.0). Median (IQR) concentrations (μg/L) of THMs were 18.6(7.3-27.6) for chloroform, 9.4(5.6-12.4) for dibromochloromethane, 6.4(2.9-10.3) for bromodichloromethane, and 26.1(16.2-36.0) for bromoform. Drinking water consumed at home was bottled (64.8%), filtered (22.9%), and tap water (12.3%). Water used for cooking was from tap (78.4%), filtered (15.7%), and bottled water (0.6%). Individual exposure estimates by trimester and for the whole pregnancy will be calculated using residential levels multiplied by amount and type of water consumed. CONCLUSIONS: The study population is exposed to relatively low concentrations of PFAS in drinking water, and THMs have a significant component of brominated species. KEYWORDS: drinking water; PFAS; disinfection byproducts; exposure assessment.

A Comprehensive Assessment of Products Management and Energy Recovery from Waste Products in the United States

This study uses the U.S. EPA data and classification of products, which includes three main categories: durables with a lifetime over 3 years, non-durables with a lifetime below 3 years, and containers and packages, which are consumed within one year. It builds connections between the management of waste products and the energy sector, by evaluating the potential contribution of such products to the U.S. energy grid, and assessing the opportunity to substitute fossil fuels, both for electricity and residential heat production. Finally, this study conducts a vis-à-vis comparison between the U.S. and the EU progress on waste management, and the associated GHG emissions. Sankey diagrams were produced to represent the flows of products management from 1990 to 2018, and the results were assessed by considering the amounts produced, the composition, and the disposition methods used, the energy potential of waste products landfilled, and the associated greenhouse gases (GHG) emissions. The results indicate that the recycling of containers and packages have increased significantly during the 28-year period and became the dominant method of managing such products in the U.S. in 2015. Durable and non-durable products are mainly landfilled, and the situation has remained unchanged in the 2010s. Assuming that 30% of waste products landfilled in the U.S. were combusted for energy instead, it would have resulted in the substitution of <5% of fossil fuels used for electricity, but up to a 68% substitution of fossil fuels, such as propane, used for residential space and water heating. In the U.S., over 85% of GHG emissions are associated with the landfilling of waste materials, and although improvements in capturing and beneficially utilizing methane are implemented, the total GHG emissions have remained almost the same since 2015, with a tendency to increase. The European experience has shown that recycling and waste-to-energy are complementary in diverting materials from landfills, in enhancing energy security, and in significantly reducing GHG emissions from waste management. Future directions are discussed.

Downscaling of planetary boundaries and sustainability management: A nexus analysis of water, land and major functions at the national-provincial level

This study introduces planetary boundaries as a global sustainability benchmark to expand the evaluation of the major function zoning. We established the relationship between the resource boundaries and China's sustainability management system while calculating the national and provincial indicators of land and water boundaries and major functions. The results showed that the efficiency of land resources was related to the distribution of forest, grassland, and wetland ecosystems; the efficiency of water resources was related to the basin and economic distribution. Linear downscaling methods are less applicable and effective in studies of planetary boundaries. The provincial water and land boundary are not consistent with the top-down decomposition results of planetary boundaries. The spatial mismatch between regional development and population will lead to the overexploitation of national resources and the environment. For basin regions rich in water resources and biome regions rich in ecological resources, the boundary threshold should be increased for major function clustering based on efficiency advantages. For main agricultural production zones and key ecological function zones beyond the water boundary, water allocation should reduce industrial and residential water use, and improve agricultural and ecological water efficiency to ensure food security and ecological safety. For optimization development zones, industrial transfer to the surrounding areas would optimize the industrial water structure and reduce virtual water consumption.

Do water savings persist? Using survival models to plan for long-term responses to extreme drought

Water utilities must maintain reliable service in a world where climate shocks and other socio-economic and health stressors are likely to disrupt water availability and demand more frequently. Understanding short- and long-term customer responses to these salient events is critical for infrastructure planning and capital investment. Although the short-term demand impacts of extreme droughts and related policy measures have been studied extensively, less is known about how these impacts persist—especially when driven by public awareness, media coverage, or other external drivers. Here, we introduce a novel approach combining survival models and change detection to assess water demand conservation ‘survival’ and rebound, using this method to analyze residential water demand in Costa Mesa, California after the state’s record-breaking 2012–2016 drought. We find that, of 54% of customers with detected savings in 2014–2015, just 25% rebounded to prior consumption levels after 5 years, implying mean conservation survival of 8 years. Survival was greater in young and politically progressive neighborhoods, smaller in residences with occupancy changes, and not significantly associated with water-efficiency rebates. Comparing the 2012–2016 drought to California’s milder 2007–2009 drought shows no evidence that drought severity associated with water savings persistence. This study presents an innovative approach to measure impacts of various stressors and their long-term water demand impacts. Our method enables utilities to more accurately discern structural changes in water demand, better informing strategic planning for short- and long-term water reliability and security.

When water conservation matters: Examining how water scarcity experiences create windows of opportunity for effective water-saving policy initiatives

With projected water scarcity, educating the public on household water-saving is essential for water sustainability. This study investigates how experiences of water scarcity, perceived severity of water shortages, and perception of water sustainability affect residential water conservation behavior in Oklahoma, and aims to strengthen the residential water conservation studies in the United States—an understudied topic—and provide evidence-based suggestions to enhance residential water sustainability education. Based on two Zero-Inflated Poisson regressions, the results reveal that those who have experienced drought and are worried about the sustainability of water resources in their community take more no-cost steps to reduce their household water waste. Only experiences of drought have a positive impact on the number of cost-incurring steps taken by households. Based on the result, state and local government’s water-saving initiatives can be more effective if they utilize the drought experiences to attract the public’s attention.

A national survey of lead and other metal(loids) in residential drinking water in the United States.

Exposure to lead (Pb), arsenic (As) and copper (Cu) may cause significant health issues including harmful neurological effects, cancer or organ damage. Determination of human exposure-relevant concentrations of these metal(loids) in drinking water, therefore, is critical. We sought to characterize exposure-relevant Pb, As, and Cu concentrations in drinking water collected from homes participating in the American Healthy Homes Survey II, a national survey that monitors the prevalence of Pb and related hazards in United States homes. Drinking water samples were collected from a national survey of 678 U.S. homes where children may live using an exposure-based composite sampling protocol. Relationships between metal(loid) concentration, water source and house age were evaluated. 18 of 678 (2.6%) of samples analyzed exceeded 5 µg Pb L-1 (Mean = 1.0 µg L-1). 1.5% of samples exceeded 10 µg As L-1 (Mean = 1.7 µg L-1) and 1,300 µg Cu L-1 (Mean = 125 µg L-1). Private well samples were more likely to exceed metal(loid) concentration thresholds than public water samples. Pb concentrations were correlated with Cu and Zn, indicative of brass as a common Pb source is samples analyzed. Results represent the largest national-scale effort to date to inform exposure risks to Pb, As, and Cu in drinking water in U.S. homes using an exposure-based composite sampling approach. To date, there are no national-level estimates of Pb, As and Cu in US drinking water collected from household taps using an exposure-based sampling protocol. Therefore, assessing public health impacts from metal(loids) in drinking water remains challenging. Results presented in this study represent the largest effort to date to test for exposure-relevant concentrations of Pb, As and Cu in US household drinking water, providing a critical step toward improved understanding of metal(loid) exposure risk.

Are Economic Tools Useful to Manage Residential Water Demand? A Review of Old Issues and Emerging Topics

The analysis of residential water demand has long attracted attention from researchers. However, the central topics at issue have evolved considerably, transitioning from estimating price and income elasticities to using experimental techniques that assess how to motivate households towards water conservation. In this literature review, we contribute to the existing literature by giving an updated overview of the state of the art in the central topics regarding residential water demand. Moreover, we present some interesting lines of research to be explored in the future. Thus, we first review some traditional key drivers of residential water demand. Second, we discuss the role of public policies when managing residential water demand, paying special attention to pricing tools. Next, we briefly review some of the methodological issues with respect to traditional econometrics and discuss related modeling. We then discuss the role of experimental designs and nudging on residential water use. Finally, we include a summary of the main literature findings, and close the discussion introducing some emerging and promising research topics.

Multi-objective model for optimal sensor placement in water distribution systems considering contamination probability variation-based contaminant impact

Contaminant intrusion in water distribution networks affects the safety of residential drinking water, and sensors are placed to detect a contaminant intrusion. As the number and location of sensors directly affect the detection efficiency, several studies focused on sensor placement optimization. Sensor placement optimization is an important mitigation measure, which is necessary to reduce the serious consequences of contaminant intrusion as different nodes impact differently on the water distribution networks after contaminant intrusion, that is, the risk levels of contaminant intrusion at nodes are different. Existing studies have considered changes in the probability of node contamination, but this probability is primarily based on the properties of the node itself. This study proposes a multi-objective sensor placement optimization method based on contamination risks, which involves the following steps. (1) Four different types of contamination probabilities are defined in terms of the impact of the contamination events. This is followed by solving a multi-objective optimization problem to obtain the Pareto fronts that are based on a variety of assumptions for the contamination probability distribution. (2) The Pareto fronts are ranked and clustered through a multi-criteria decision analysis, which leads to the optimal scheme in each cluster under different preferences. (3) The optimal schemes are compared in terms of the impact of the contaminant intrusion on the network. The proposed method is empirically evaluated by using the D-town network model. The results reveal that when node-to-node variation in the contamination probability is enabled, each sensor placement scheme exhibits a high true detection rate of contamination. The contamination probability based on the number of affected pipelines can yield optimal sensor placement for a fixed number of sensors to minimize the impact of contaminant intrusion on the pipeline network.

Impact of Data Temporal Resolution on Quantifying Residential End Uses of Water

Residential water end-use events (e.g., showers, toilets, faucets, etc.) can be derived from high temporal resolution (<1 min) water metering data. Past studies have collected data at different temporal resolutions (e.g., 4 s, 5 s, or 10 s) without assessing the impact of the temporal aggregation interval on end-use event features (e.g., volume, flowrate, duration) due to the unavailability of data at a sufficient temporal resolution to enable such analyses. We recorded the time between every magnetic pulse generated by a magnetically driven residential water meter’s measurement element (full pulse resolution) using a new, open-source datalogging device and collected data for two residential homes in Utah, USA. We then examined water use events without temporally aggregating data and compared to the same data aggregated at different time intervals to evaluate how temporal resolution of the data affects our ability to identify end-use events, calculate features of individual events, and classify events by end use. Our results show how collecting full pulse resolution data can provide more accurate estimates of event occurrence, timing, and features along with producing more discriminative event features that can only be estimated from full pulse resolution data to make event classification easier and more accurate.

The Tripod Relationship Between Local Embalmment, Environment and Human Health Implications in Cross River State, Nigeria

The purpose of this paper is to assess the environmental and health implications of local embalmment in Cross River State, Nigeria. The Ex-post-facto research design was adopted for this study. Six embalmment sites from six Local Government Areas were randomly selected across the state from where water and soil samples were taken for laboratory analysis and testing. The environmental impacts, as well as the health implications of local embalmment, were investigated. Multivariate statistical analysis was applied for the physicochemical parameters using a correlation matrix to evaluate factors influencing the groundwater chemistry and sources of pollution in the aquifer of the areas. Some laboratory procedures were also adopted to test the chemistry of the adjoining soils for the impacts of these embalmment chemicals as used by these morticians. A comparative analysis was further done on the different soil samples, the ones directly affected by the immediate mortuary facilities and those away from the facilities. A structured questionnaire made up of twenty items was also administered to the mortuary attendants and residents of the communities and adjoining communities where these embalmment homes are located. Simple percentage and correlation analysis was done to examine the perceived effect of embalmment chemicals on the environment and the health of residents. The results obtained from the laboratory analyses of selected groundwater and soil samples around the mortuary sites studied indicated that formaldehyde, glutaraldehyde, humectants, metals, coli forms, microorganisms, and other contaminants from the mortuary sites have impaired the soil and water quality. It was recommended among others that green embalmment procedures should be encouraged, embalmment services should be located far away from residential areas and water bodies; wastes from embalmment/mortuary services should be sustainably disposed of to avoid these chemicals from contaminating the environment.

A Participatory-Based Research Approach for Assessing Exposure to Lead-Contaminated Drinking Water in the Houston Neighborhood of the Greater Fifth Ward.

To address community-driven concerns about lead-contaminated drinking water in residential homes in the Greater Fifth Ward neighborhood in Northeast Houston, Texas utilizing participatory-based research. The study collected survey data and performed lead analysis on drinking water from residents’ homes. The Greater Fifth Ward is characterized as a majority-minority environmental justice community and is located within two confirmed cancer clusters. The residents of 172 homes completed a survey and had detectable lead levels in their water samples. Survey results indicated that more than half of the residents (58.2%) were concerned with the water quality and 42.9% rated the drinking water as poor. Water lead levels detected ranged from 0.01 to 22 µg/L. 10.9% of homes exceeding 1 µg/L, and one located exceeded the USEPA’s action limit of 15 µg/L. Homes built prior to 1978 without major renovation had significantly higher levels of lead in their drinking water compared to homes built after 1978 (p-value < 0.05). These findings demonstrate the need for lead testing of residential water in low socioeconomic-status communities, as well as demonstrating the benefits of community engagement and participatory research to address environmental health concerns.

ML-based energy management of water pumping systems for the application of peak shaving in small-scale islands

This study introduces an energy management method that smooths electricity consumption and shaves peaks by scheduling the operating hours of water pumping stations in a smart fashion. Machine learning models are first used to accurately forecast the electricity consumed and produced by renewable energy sources on an hourly level. Then, the forecasts are exploited by an algorithm that optimally allocates the operating hours of the pumps with the objective to minimize predicted peaks. Constraints related with the operation of the pumps are also considered. The performance of the proposed method is evaluated considering the case of a Greek remote island, Tilos. The island involves an energy management system that facilitates the monitoring and control of local water pumping stations that support residential water supply and irrigation. Results indicate that smart scheduling of water pumps in a small-scale island environment can reduce the daily and weekly deviation of electricity consumption by more than 15% at no monetary cost. It is also concluded that the potential gains of the proposed approach are strongly connected with the amount of load that can be shifted each day, the accuracy of the forecasts used, and the amount of electricity produced by renewable energy sources. • Electricity peak shaving in small scale islands. • Smart scheduling the operation of water pumping systems. • Exploiting ensembles of forecasting models for PV production and electricity consumption. • A heuristic optimization algorithm to support load shifting decisions.

Transformed Wetlands and Urban Resilience: a Case Study From Bellanwila – Attidiya Wetland Sanctuary, Sri Lanka

Urbanization is a major issue that threatens natural habitats. However, carefully planned anthropogenic activities give the opportunity to transform urban natural habitats to offer new services to cities. In this study, we assessed the impact of land-use conversions on the spatial status of Bellanwila - Attidiya wetland sanctuary in the Colombo district, Sri Lanka. The Bellanwila - Attidiya wetland provides many ecosystem services but is highly vulnerable to the rapid land use and land cover changes that comes with urbanization. Multi-temporal remote sensing images were analyzed for the years 2005, 2009, and 2015 to study the changes in land use/land cover features of the wetland. The social perception of the ecosystem services was assessed by conducting semi-structured interviews with the residents. During the study period, parts of the wetland had been transformed into residential areas (10.1%) and open water systems (8.6%). Urban expansion and the construction of a storm water management system were found to be the main causes for these changes. The community perception revealed that the wetland has deteriorated, and that the ecosystem services had been altered due to the land use/land cover changes. The anthropogenic transformation of part of the wetland into a flood retention area and the addition of infrastructure for recreational purposes have added value to the wetland complex and therefore opportunities for new ecosystem services have emerged. Our findings shed light on the need for inclusive urban planning mainstreaming community perceptions. It also highlights the benefits of transforming urban spaces into anthropogenic landscapes that blends with nature to offer ecosystem services and enhance community resilience.

Evaluating the performance of feature selection techniques and machine learning algorithms on future residential water demand

Abstract The provision of potable water as a severe challenge has engaged many people worldwide. So, identifying influential factors in water demand forecasting (WDF) for the residential sector performs a vital role in water crisis management. Nowadays, long-term macro-planning for vast geographical areas helps policymakers to achieve sustainable development goals. This study uses the same perspective to present a pattern for water consumption behavior and prediction. For this purpose, yearly residential water consumption data, along with climatic characteristics, and socioeconomic factors of rural areas of Isfahan, Iran, are aggregated. The feature selection task is conducted on the collected data using various machine learning (ML) methods along with a novel approach, forward selection based on smoothness index (FSSmI). Posterior to selecting features influencing residential water demand (WD), the raw data are analyzed using regression techniques, including multiple linear regression, support vector regression, and random forest regression. The employed methods show an improvement in the feature selection procedure and coefficient of determination as a result of implementing the FSSmI method. Based on the results, multiple linear regression and support vector regression gain 96% and 95% accuracy and less than 11% and 13% error respectively; it demonstrates the validity of forecasting methods.

The Perception of Residential Water Tariff, Consumption, and Cost: Evidence of its Determinants Using Survey Data

In a survey of 1,500 households in Zaragoza (Spain), we found that respondents did not accurately know what the price of water was, and what the characteristics of the water tariff were, how much water they consumed, or how much it cost them; they thought they consumed less water than they actually did, and thought that their consumption level was normal; they believed they paid more than they really did, and considered the payments to be appropriate or expensive. Based on this sample of households, this paper analyses what determines the level of accuracy in the perception of consumers about their water tariff, their water consumption, and their total water cost, or, in other words, what determines the closeness between their perception and reality. The methodology applied is based on maximum likelihood estimates using various probit/logit models. The results obtained allow to identify the collectives to whom an information policy should be directed in order to approximate their perceptions closer to the real tariff, consumption and cost of water in households, and to point out the kind of information that should be transmitted in order to contribute to the preservation of water resources.

Assessment of Termination Criteria at Each Drought Response Stage on Climate Change in a Multi-Purpose Dam

In this study, the termination criteria at each drought response stage were shown to increase storage volume while maintaining the stability of the water supply service during drought in multi-purpose dams. For 52 of the Representative Concentration Pathway (RCP) 4.5/8.5 scenarios of the IPCC (Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change) fifth assessment report (AR5), dam inflows were calculated through the precipitation-runoff modeling system (PRMS), and time reliability and supply reliability were estimated. Moreover, given the application of termination criteria at each drought response stage, the volume of additional water supply was calculated, while the number of days for additional supply availability of water for residential and industrial use and water for residential, industrial, and agricultural use and river maintenance was quantified as well. The CMCC-CMS(RCP4.5) GCM exhibited the largest volume of additional water supply at 74.15 million m3, which corresponds to 52.0 days of water for residential and industrial use and to 47.7 days of water for residential, industrial, and agricultural use and river maintenance. The analysis revealed that the volume and the number of days of additional water supply also increased for other GCMs due to the application of termination criteria at each drought response stage.