Residential Water Use Research Articles

Drought Status, Price, and the Effectiveness of Water Use Restrictions in Pennsylvania

During droughts, governments and water suppliers typically implement non-price policies to encourage water conservation. The state of Pennsylvania requests voluntary reductions in residential water use during moderate droughts and imposes mandatory restrictions during drought emergencies. This study utilizes data on household water consumption to measure the effectiveness of the water use restrictions in Pennsylvania during the moderate drought years 2015-2017. Results suggest that voluntary water use restrictions have smaller than desired effects and that the effects are larger the higher the marginal price of water, perhaps reflecting a trade-off between non-monetary benefits and the welfare loss from reducing water usage. The effectiveness of voluntary water use restrictions also is found to increase with the length of the drought.

The Effectiveness of Urban Irrigation Day Restrictions in California

We analyze the impact of restricting outdoor irrigation using monthly data from 408 urban water suppliers in California during the final years of the 2012–2017 drought. Our estimates suggest that assigning an additional no-irrigation day per week leads to a decrease in average monthly residential water consumption by approximately 0.8 gallons per capita-day. There is substantial heterogeneity in this impact. First, the marginal effect of a stricter irrigation policy varies depending on the existing level of outdoor watering restrictions — while initial restrictions lead to considerable conservation gains, tightening these measures further does not bring additional gains unless 6 weekly no-irrigation days are implemented. Furthermore, the policy is more effective in areas where residential water use represents a larger share of total urban water consumption and areas which perform better at reaching the 25% state conservation target.

Implications of Nontraditional Housing Arrangements for Urban Water Management in the United States Intermountain West

Homeowners living in single-family detached housing have dominated the literature exploring drivers of residential water use. Meanwhile, rentals, multiunit buildings, and residences governed by private associations are an increasingly important component of the American residential landscape. We used data from a large sample of households in northern Utah cities to explore the effects of these nontraditional housing arrangements on water use decision-making, attitudes and behaviors, and their implications for urban water management. After accounting for the sociodemographic characteristics of respondent households, we found that residents of nontraditional housing arrangements are much less likely to have authority over key water use decisions, and differ significantly from residents of traditional housing in regards to water use perceptions and concerns, self-reported water behaviors, and support for various local water policy options. Traditional approaches to urban residential water management should be adapted to renters, residents in multiunit buildings, and members of community associations.

Advances in the Economic Analysis of Residential Water Use: An Introduction

The aim of this Special Issue is to gather evidence on the impact of price policies (PP) and non-price policies (NPP) in shaping residential water use in a context of increased water scarcity. Indeed, a large body of the empirical economic literature on residential water demand has been devoted to measuring the impact of PP (water price increases, use of block rate pricing or peak pricing, etc.). The consensus is that the residential water demand is inelastic with respect to water price, but not perfectly. Given the low water price elasticity, pricing schemes may not always be effective tools for modifying household water behaviors. This is puzzling since increasing the water price is still viewed by public authorities as the most direct economic tool for inducing water conservation behaviors. Additional evidence regarding the use of PP in shaping residential water use is then required. More recently, it has been argued that residential consumers may react to NPP, such as water conservation programs, education campaigns, or smart metering. NPP are based on the idea that residential water users can implement strategies that will result in water savings via changing their individual behaviors. Feedback information based on smart water metering is an example of approach used by some water utilities. There are still large gaps in the knowledge on the residential water demand, and in particular on the impact of PP and NPP on residential water use, household water affordability and water service performance. These topics are addressed in this Special Issue “Advances in the Economic Analysis of Residential Water Use”.

Spillovers from Behavioral Interventions: Experimental Evidence from Water and Energy Use

This paper provides experimental evidence that behavioral interventions spill over to untreated sectors by altering consumer choice. We use a randomized controlled trial and high-frequency data to test the effect of social norms messaging about residential water use on electricity consumption. Messaging appears to induce a small reduction in summertime electricity use. Empirical tests and household survey data support the hypothesis that this nudge alters electricity choices. An engineering simulation suggests that complementarities between appliances that use water and electricity explain roughly a quarter of the electricity reduction. Incorporating the cross-sectoral spillover increases the net benefits of the intervention substantially.

Domestic water supply, residential water use behaviour, and household willingness to pay: The case of Banda Aceh, Indonesia after ten years since the 2004 Indian Ocean Tsunami

In this study, we developed a preliminary assessment of current domestic water supply and use in Banda Aceh, Indonesia, a city that was hardest hit by the Indian Ocean Tsunami of 2004. The motivation was to develop understanding of the status and future direction for improvement of domestic water supply after 10 years of post-tsunami reconstruction. For this purpose, we collected primary and secondary information from both water utility and residential households. In particular, we conducted household survey to examine water use behaviour in relation to domestic water supply by local utility, public perception on water supply service, and household willingness to pay (WTP) for reliable water supply. Our study results show that domestic water supply in the city has been improving in service coverage but is subject to high percentages of non-revenue water, financial loss, and poor performance. Despite available tap water, residential households access multiple water sources differentially between drinking and non-drinking purposes. All survey respondents are willing to pay for reliable water supply service, with median WTP estimated at approximately 190% of current household monthly water bill. Most respondents have a concentrated WTP distribution whose mean depends mainly on household income, family size, and water use behaviour. The study findings fill in the knowledge gap in the literature while informing improvement of domestic water supply in Banda Aceh, Indonesia.

Methodology for the National Water Savings Models- Indoor Residential and Commercial/Institutional Products, and Outdoor Residential Products.

AbstractSince 2006, the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) has operated WaterSense® in partnership with manufacturers, utilities, and consumer groups. Similar to EPA's ENERGY STAR® role for energy-efficient products, WaterSense® employs a labeling system to identify water-efficient products, homes, and services. As of 2015, the WaterSense® program can claim credit for a total savings of 1.5 trillion gallons of water and $32.6 billion in consumer water and energy bills. Savings are tracked in the National Water Savings (NWS) model that combines innovative analyses with methodologies established in the energy sector. Merging life-cycle cost and national impact analysis models, the NWS model estimates savings from a bottom-up accounting method for individual products. The model extends those savings to the national level by employing parameters such as frequency of product use by number of people and building type, product lifetime, stock accounting, and market saturation. The NWS model tracks the water and consumer monetary savings of WaterSense-labeled products for residential and commercial water use both indoors and out.

A Review of Applying Spatial Modelling and GIS in Residential Water Use

Growing studies indicate that social geography characteristics and spatial interactions contribute to water sustainability management in residential water use. Recently, researches are being developed spatial decision support system by integrating spatial modelling with GIS, which clearly display the determined factors information of water consumption by the changing weights methods. Policy makers will use the tool to manipulate and evaluate the effective of water management strategies, and it is beneficial to analyse a range of alternative water conservation policies. Such studies and model applying are of great significance for reference in sustainable water management in China. Thus, this paper reviews the previous researches of spatial modelling and application in residential water use.

Evaluating the efficacy of an information-based residential outdoor water conservation program

Abstract Information-based policy instruments are some of the most commonly used tools for influencing consumers' water use in the residential sector. However, their ability to change behavior remains an area in need of further research. This study describes the evaluation of an information-based demand management program, rooted in normative comparison, designed to increase the efficiency of households' residential outdoor water use. Results indicate that the program had an impact on water use among households that received persuasive messages regarding their past consumption, compared to estimates of lawn water requirements and the water use of neighbors. Additionally, the results demonstrate that the treatment effect gets stronger over time and varies among message recipients as a function of baseline water use. Unanticipated effects of the administration of the messages show an increase in water use among the lowest consuming households. Top users reduced their water use significantly as a function of the persuasive message. The findings suggest that utilities seeking to augment users' water consumption through persuasion must be cognizant of the way that messages are framed, and who receives them, or potentially face unanticipated side effects, and that message repetition may have some additionality.

Impacts of urbanization on water use and energy-related CO2 emissions of residential consumption in China: A spatio-temporal analysis during 2003–2012

Abstract China has been undergoing unprecedented urbanization since the 1978 economic reform, with the present growth rate of 20 million people per year. This rapid and perennial progress has been raising concerns about environmental sustainability, due to a severe nationwide deterioration of China's environment and ecosystems in the context of ceaselessly increasing demand for water and energy. It is therefore of prime necessity and importance to comprehend China's water and energy security under the effect of dramatic demographic changes. Analyses of this issue still remain few and far between, and a comprehensive picture is not available that would help understand China's recent development in urbanization, its spatial features and links to water and energy security, particularly regarding residential consumption, and related national policy-making. Consequently, we address these knowledge gaps by performing an integrated and quantitative spatio-temporal analysis of the impacts of China's urbanization on water use and energy-related CO2 emissions of residential consumption. We propose adding residential per capita water use and per capita energy-related CO2 emissions as national indicators for policy-making targets of China's water and energy security. Over the study period of 2003–2012, per capita rural residential water use was on the increase, while urban use showed the opposite trend. Rural consumption has been remarkably higher than the urban, and this gap appears to be growing. In contrast, the per capita energy-related CO2 emissions of residential consumption augmented significantly in both urban and rural areas nationwide. Besides, both the total and rural per capita residential water use and energy-related CO2 emissions showed a significant positive correlation. However, in urban areas this correlation was negative.

Household Water Demand in Andorra: Impact of Individual Metering and Seasonality

Despite the large literature focused on residential water use, our knowledge of the impact of individual metering on household water consumption remains limited. Our work aims to fill this gap by providing the first estimate of the residential water demand function in the Principality of Andorra, where collective and individual metering coexists. Using a panel dataset covering the years 2006 to 2015, we propose estimating a domestic water demand function for the municipality of Andorra La Vella (the capital of Andorra). Our estimates reveal a price elasticity of the residential water demand equal to –0.7. Facing a price increase of 10 percent, households will react in the short run by reducing their water consumption by 7 percent. Interestingly, the price elasticity is found to be significantly different in single-family units compared to multi-family units. This may suggest a significant impact of individual metering on domestic water consumption in Andorra.

Investigating wastewater flow from a gated community to disaggregate indoor and outdoor water use

Abstract Disaggregating residential water use into components for indoor and outdoor use is useful in view of water services planning and demand management campaigns, where outdoor use is often the target of water restrictions. Previous research has shown that individual end-use events can be identified based on analysis of the flow pattern at the water meter, but such studies are relatively complex and expensive. A basic method to disaggregate the indoor–outdoor water use would be useful. In addressing this problem, a technique was employed in this study to disaggregate indoor–outdoor water use based on knowledge of the wastewater flow, with assumptions that link indoor use to wastewater flow. A controlled study site in a gated community, with small bore sewers, was selected to allow certain assumptions to be validated. The results provide insight into the monthly indoor and outdoor water use of homes in the study area, and show how wastewater flow could be used to assess outdoor use. Outdoor use was found to represent up to 66% of the total household water use in January, accounting for ∼58% of the total annual water use in the study area 2016.

Mosaic analysis for personal water consumption in residential buildings in Hong Kong

This paper investigates the daily per capita residential water use based on the demographic and socio-economic factors described by Mosaic Hong Kong and provides insights into future water supply planning. A survey was conducted to collect information on household water use behaviours and water consumption patterns. The survey results indicate that considerable consumption differences (in the range of 115.6 to 167.7 litres per person per day) exist among the Mosaic Groups, and the average daily per capita residential water consumption is estimated to be 139.6 litres per person per day. The results also reveal that the daily per capita water consumption is inversely proportional to household size in the range of 2 to 6. Moreover, consumption differences among housing types and districts are reported.

Study on confirmation of water right in Yangyuan County, China

In order to implement the reform of the water resources fee in Hebei Province, the right confirmation of water resources use is crucial. In this study, Yangyuan County of Zhangjiakou, Hebei Province was selected for the research and the regional situations of hydrology, social economy, water conservancy project distribution and water supply were analyzed. Then, rights of residential water use, industrial water use, ecological water use, reserve water amount and agricultural water use in study region were calculated. Furthermore, the corresponding scheme of water use rights was confirmed. The results could provide technical support to the optimization of water resources management for Yangyuan County and reference to other regions of Hebei Province.

A methodology for synthetic household water consumption data generation

In the smart cities context, real-time knowledge of residential water consumption has become increasingly important, especially given the fast evolution of sensors, ICT and the production of big, high-resolution data coming from the urban environment. A variety of reasons often leads to the creation of continuity gaps in these data series, thus making the need for a methodology that produces reliable and realistic synthetic data urgent. In this article, we present a methodology that generates synthetic household water consumption data; we showcase it in two case studies, Skiathos, Greece and Sosnowiec, Poland, which exhibit significant differences in water consumption patterns. The methodology captures the stochasticity of daily residential water use. Algorithm validation is implemented through the comparison of various metrics for actual and generated data; this way, we show that the suggested approach is capable of adequately simulating water consumption in both micro- and macro-time scale.

Predicting water consumption from energy data: Modeling the residential energy and water nexus in the integrated urban metabolism analysis tool (IUMAT)

This paper describes a method for residential water use modeling predicated on metered energy data. Actual measured hot water volumes for major indoor consumption are used to verify and adjust the outputs in gallons of hot water consumption based on climate variables, water heater technical features, and set-point and intake temperatures. Three independent datasets for residential energy (RECS 2009), water heater efficiency (Air-conditioning, Heating and Refrigeration Institute-AHRI), and end-use domestic water (Residential End Uses of Water, Version 2-REU II) are applied to identify specific demographic, built environment and geographic factors that relate patterns of energy demand to water consumption. The proposed model acts within the broader Integrated Urban Metabolism Analysis Tool (IUMAT), a system-based analytical framework for evaluating the environmental performance of the built environment. The method described in this paper offers an alternative approach to residential water consumption modeling by implementing volume of hot water consumption as a proxy for indoor water use. It provides utilities with the potential to parse and prioritize energy and water conservation measures.

Estimating the impact of climate change on residential water use using panel data analysis: a case study of Lilongwe, Malawi

Abstract In this study, panel linear models were used to develop an empirical relationship between metered household water use and the independent variables plot size and theoretical irrigation requirement. The estimated statistical model provides a means of estimating the climate-sensitive component of residential water use. Ensemble averages of temperature and rainfall projections were used to quantify potential changes in water use due to climate change by 2050. Annual water use per household was estimated to increase by approximately 1.5% under the low emissions scenario or 2.3% under the high emissions scenario. The model results provide information that can enhance water conservation initiatives relating particularly to outdoor water use. The model approach presented utilizes data that are readily available to water supply utilities and can therefore be easily replicated elsewhere.

An Agent-based behavioral simulation model for residential water demand management: The case-study of Tehran, Iran

One of the main parts of urban water consumption is residential water use. In this paper, a new framework based on agent-based modeling is introduced to simulate the behavioral characteristics of residential water users and their social interactions. The proposed framework, as a decision making tool, can be used for evaluating responses of domestic water users to some factors such as social consciousness about hydrologic conditions, water pricing, and advertising policies as well as social interactions and communications. To illustrate the practical utility of the framework, it is applied to the western part of Tehran metropolitan city in Iran. The results show that increasing water price and investing on advertisement can be considered as effective strategies for managing residential water consumption in the study area.

A preliminary investigation of water usage behavior in single-family homes

As regional drought conditions continue deteriorating around the world, residential water use has been brought into the built environment spotlight. Nevertheless, the understanding of water use behavior in residential buildings is still limited. This paper presents data analytics and results from monitoring data of daily water use (DWU) in 50 single-family homes in Texas, USA. The results show the typical frequency distribution curve of the DWU per household and indicate personal income, education level and energy use of appliances all have statistically significant effects on the DWU per capita. Analysis of the water-intensive use demonstrates the residents tend to use more water in post-vacation days. These results help generate awareness of water use behavior in homes. Ultimately, this research could support policy makers to establish a water use baseline and inform water conservation programs.

Predicting Satisfaction with Smart Irrigation Controllers and Their Long‐Term Use among Homeowners in Central Florida

AbstractStudies throughout Florida have shown smart controllers can substantially reduce irrigation under residential high‐water use conditions. However, successful promotion requires understanding the link between controller performance and the mechanisms by which they are adopted. This article compares irrigation water‐use and survey data collected from households installed with soil moisture sensor and evapotranspiration controllers. The study investigated whether the relative change in irrigation use between two years preceding and two years following installation was a reliable predictor of a homeowner's satisfaction with the device and likelihood of continuing to use it. Results indicated relative changes in irrigation use were only significantly associated with the quality of controller programming. Satisfaction with the controller was largely attributable to satisfaction with the appearance of the landscape and the perceived water‐saving effectiveness of the controller whereas the likelihood of its continued use was only significantly predicted by the level of technical knowledge regarding its functioning and whether or not challenges were experienced with it. Targeting homeowners with supplemental user‐friendly information may best support their long‐term adoption of smart controllers while providing irrigation contractors with training in implementation techniques would represent an integrated strategy for added reductions in residential outdoor water use.