Residential Sprinkler Research Articles

Return on investment and water savings of add‐on irrigation sensors for bermudagrass lawn irrigation in Northwest Arkansas

AbstractHomeowners with automated sprinkler systems water lawns frequently and may be unaware of the volume of water applied in their irrigation programs. Rain sensors (RS) and soil moisture sensors (SMS) may reduce watering by permitting scheduled irrigation to occur relative to recent rainfall or current soil moisture status and are available as add‐on technologies for residential sprinkler systems. As RS and SMS may positively impact irrigation scheduling, incorporating them into existing sprinkler systems may reduce water use and provide a return on investment (ROI), without compromising turfgrass quality. The objectives of this research were to determine the water savings of add‐on RS and SMS, estimate their ROI, and evaluate their impact on bermudagrass [Cynodon dactylon (L.) Pers.] lawn quality over three summers in Northwest Arkansas. An irrigation schedule without a sensor (control) was programmed to apply 0.5 inches of water twice a week for 17 wk. Water usage and turfgrass quality under the control were compared with two RS and two SMS, following the same program. During the 3‐yr study, RS and SMS reduced annual water use by an average of 22.1 and 66.2%, respectively. All treatments exhibited similar turfgrass quality and remained above the minimum level of acceptable quality. Under these experimental conditions, the average ROI for RS and SMS was estimated to be $87 and $200, respectively, within the first year of installation. Regional best management practices for watering bermudagrass lawns should include the incorporation of RS and SMS to reduce irrigation, maintain turfgrass quality, and save money.

Numerical simulations of concealed residential sprinkler head activation time in a standard thermal response room test

It is common for sprinkler heads in residential buildings to be of the concealed type. Key parameters for the thermal sensitivity of sprinkler heads are the response time index (m½s½) and conductivity factor (C factor, m½s−½). BS 9252:2011 and BS EN 12259-14:2020 outline test methods to determine whether sprinkler heads achieve adequate thermal sensitivity, stipulating that a room test be undertaken for concealed heads. In carrying out this test, neither the response time index nor C factor is defined. This paper uses computational modelling tools Fire Dynamics Simulator and B-RISK to simulate the room test. In running these simulations, maximum values for the ‘effective’ response time index and C factor needed to pass the room test can be estimated, assuming concealed heads can be represented as equivalent pendent heads. Initial deterministic simulations are used to calibrate results between Fire Dynamics Simulator and B-RISK. Monte Carlo modelling is then utilised within B-RISK, with variable parameters for the response time index and C factor (C), to estimate the relationship between the two parameters necessary to pass the room test. As a result, it is proposed that this relationship can be represented using a simple, empirical power law equation of response time index = 100 (5.4–C)2/3, where C < 5.4. Practical application: The results indicate that the minimum RTI and C factor values needed to pass the room test are greater than those needed to pass wind tunnel testing methods. In observing that equivalency is not demonstrated by the room test, and by defining the RTI/C factor relationship needed to pass the test, this paper provides fire safety engineers with amended values for concealed heads to be adopted in future assessments. In the absence of any detailed specification for sprinkler heads, it is recommended that an RTI of 290 m½s½ and a C factor of 0.5 m½s−½ may be applied.

Cost-benefit analysis of residential sprinklers – Application of a judgement value method

It is common for agencies around the world to conduct some form of cost-benefit analysis (CBA) when proposing an investment in a safety measure. Since resources are limited, expenditure on one particular safety measure reduces the availability of those resources for other measures. Due to finite financial resources, an investment in a safety scheme thus requires a trade-off. As such, the objective of a CBA is to assess whether the proposed measure provides a net-benefit to society or whether resources would be better directed elsewhere.Fire safety measures, such as sprinkler systems, are one means to reduce the risk posed by fire in buildings. Sprinkler systems have a long record of property and life protection but there is a cost associated with their installation and ongoing maintenance. For many years various agencies have examined whether sprinkler systems should be mandated in some or all buildings within their jurisdiction, and as a result have conducted different forms of CBA. However, there are a number of challenges when carrying out such assessments particularly when it comes to placing a value on a preventable fatality.This paper revisits previous CBA studies available in the literature for the installation of residential (domestic) sprinkler systems in single family dwellings. This paper applies recent work to extend the J-value methodology which employs the life quality index (LQI) concept as a means of valuing the benefit of increasing life expectancy through the mitigation of consequences, or reduction in the occurrence rate of a hazard. Similar to the earlier work, the paper finds that the unilateral installation of sprinkler systems in single family homes mostly results in a net-disbenefit to society (depending upon jurisdiction). Widespread adoption of sprinklers is generally only found to be cost-beneficial where the installation and maintenance costs can be split across a number of properties per installation, e.g. apartment buildings. This conclusion is reached through the adoption of a novel and objective judgement scalar that is easy to implement and interpret.

Evaluation of the justifiable investment in residential sprinkler system installations using the J-value methodology

It is common for agencies around the world to conduct some form of cost-benefit analysis (CBA) when proposing an investment in a safety measure. Since resources are limited, expenditure on one particular safety measure effectively means that there are not the resources available for other measures. Due to finite financial resources, an investment in a safety scheme will require a trade-off elsewhere. As such, the objective of a CBA is to assess whether the proposed measure provides a net benefit to society or whether resources would be better directed elsewhere.Fire safety measures, such as sprinkler systems, are one means to mitigate the risk posed by fire in buildings. Sprinkler systems have a long record of property and life protection but there is a cost associated with their installation and ongoing maintenance. For many years various agencies have examined whether sprinkler systems should be mandated in some or all buildings within their jurisdiction, and as a result have conducted different forms of CBA. However, there are a number of challenges when carrying out such assessments particularly when it comes to placing an economic value on human life.This paper revisits three previous CBA available in the literature for the installation of residential (domestic) sprinkler systems in single family dwellings. The paper applies recent work to extend the J-value methodology which employs the life quality index (LQI) concept as a mean of valuing the benefit of increasing life expectancy through the mitigation or reduction in the occurrence rate of a hazard. Similar to the previous studies investigated, the paper finds that the unilateral installation of sprinkler systems in single family homes does not provide a net benefit to society. This conclusion is reached through the adoption of a novel and objective judgement scalar that is easy to implement and interpret.

Influence of an Extended Domestic Drinking Water System on the Drinking Water Quality

Drinking water and fire safety are strongly bonded to each other. Actual drinking water demand and fire flows are both delivered through the same network, and are both devoted to public health and safety. In The Netherlands, the discussion about fire flows supplied by the drinking water networks has drawn fire fighters and drinking water companies together, searching for novel approaches to improve public safety. One of these approaches is the application of residential fire sprinkler systems fed by drinking water. This approach has an impact on the layout of domestic drinking water systems (DDWSs), as extra plumbing is required. This study examined the influence of the added plumbing on quality of both fresh and 10 h stagnant water in two full scale DDWSs: a conventional and an extended system. Overnight stagnation was found to promote copper and zinc leaching from pipes in both DDWSs. Microbial numbers and viability in the stagnant water, measured by heterotrophic plate count (HPC), flow cytometry (FCM) and adenosine tri-phosphate (ATP), depended on the temperature of fresh water, as increased microbial numbers and viability was measured in both DDWSs when the temperature of fresh water was below the observed tipping point (15 °C for the HPC and 17 °C for the FCM and ATP measurements respectively) and vice versa. A high level of similarity between water and biofilm communities, >98% and >70–94% respectively, indicates that the extension of the DDWS did not affect either the microbial quality of fresh drinking water or the biofilm composition.

How the science of injury prevention contributes to advancing home fire safety in the USA: successes and opportunities

BackgroundIn the decades since the landmark report-America Burning-was published in 1973, the number of home fire deaths has shrunk from >5500 per year to 2650 in 2015. This paper: (1)...

Impact Evaluation of Residential Irrigation Audits on Water Conservation in Colorado

Residential sprinkler audit programs are commonly used as a tool for municipalities to achieve their water conservation goals, but little evaluative work has been done to measure the water savings from these efforts. Results include a statistical analysis of the impact of 2,000 residential sprinkler audits in Colorado and guidance for future conservation program design. Analysis of water billing records from at least two years pre‐ and two years post‐irrigation audit from five seasons (2007–2012) were used to answer key questions about irrigation audit impact on water use as well as to understand factors that contribute to water savings from irrigation programs. While the average water savings one year post‐audit were 5,000 gal/participant and median savings were 2,000 gal/participant, high variability among savings beyond one year suggests that audits may not produce as robust long‐term benefits.

Clothing Flammability and Burn Injuries: Public Opinion Concerning an Overlooked, Preventable Public Health Problem.

The objective of this study was to describe knowledge of clothing flammability risk, public support for clothing flammability warning labels, and stronger regulation to reduce the risk. As part of a national survey of homeowners about residential sprinkler systems, the authors included questions about clothing flammability. The authors used an online web panel to sample homeowners and descriptive methods to analyze the resulting data. The sample included 2333 homeowners. Knowledge of clothing flammability and government oversight of clothing flammability risk was low. Homeowners were evenly split about the effectiveness of current standards; however, when presented with clothing-related burn injury and death data, a majority (53%) supported stricter standards. Most homeowners (64%) supported warning labels and indicated that such labels would either have no effect on their purchasing decisions (64%) or be an incentive (24%) to purchase an item. Owners of sprinkler-equipped homes were more likely to support these interventions than owners of homes without sprinkler systems. Public knowledge about clothing flammability risks is low. Most homeowners supported clothing labels to inform consumers of this risk and increased government intervention to reduce the risk.

Public opinion concerning residential sprinkler systems for 1- and 2-family homes.

BackgroundResidential sprinkler systems (RSS) are one intervention to prevent fire injury and death, yet there is no literature documenting why RSS homeowners opt to purchase a sprinkler-equipped home. This manuscript describes homeowners’ decisions to purchase homes with residential sprinkler systems (RSS) and their experiences with the technology. It also compares how RSS homeowners and owners of homes without RSS value sprinklers and their levels of support for policies to mandate RSS in new homes.MethodsWe used a national online web panel to sample owners of 1- and 2-family homes, and descriptive methods to analyze the resulting data.ResultsOur final sample included 1,357 homeowners of 1- and 2-family homes without RSS and 976 homeowners with RSS. RSS homeowners were more likely than owners of non-RSS homes to indicate they would buy an RSS home in the future (75 % vs. 30 %), and more often indicated a willingness to pay for sprinklers (70 % vs. 40 %). RSS homeowners also expressed higher levels of support for policies to mandate RSS in all new 1- and 2-family homes (48 % vs. 19 %).ConclusionsThe findings offer insight into educational and policy strategies to promote RSS in all new homes, and provide a foundation for future research in this area.

Preventing fire-related occupational deaths: residential sprinklers save civilians, property, and firefighters.

Residential fires are an important public health problem, with proven strategies to prevent death and injury. Residential sprinkler systems are one such strategy. While the benefits of this technology tend to center on civilian lives and property, there are also benefits for firefighters. The purpose of this article is to describe these benefits and discuss residential sprinkler systems as a strategy to reduce the risk of firefighter injury and death. Because of the benefits for firefighter safety, firefighters' knowledge about fire prevention, and their authority on this topic, firefighters are an essential stakeholder for raising awareness among the public and policymakers about the existence of and benefits associated with residential sprinkler systems.

Fire Performance Assessment of a Fiber Reinforced Polymer Wall Panel Used in a Single Family Dwelling

This paper describes a fire performance assessment of a sandwich panel selected as the primary material in a high-performance house developed for the 2013 China Solar Decathlon competition. The sandwich panel has fiber reinforced polymer skins and a foam plastic core. Evaluation of fire performance showed that the selected panel would not comply with U.S. building code requirements for a single-family dwelling without additional protection. However, the use of an intumescent fire protective coating, coupled with the installation of a residential fire sprinkler system, is shown to be effective in meeting the intent of the fire and life safety requirements of the International Residential Code. Fire testing shows that the application of an intumescent fire protective coating to the panels significantly decreases the heat release rate, the smoke production characteristics, and the extent of flame spread on the panels.

Major transport mechanisms of pyrethroids in residential settings and effects of mitigation measures

The major pathways for transport of pyrethroids were determined in runoff studies conducted at a full-scale test facility in central California, USA. The 6 replicate house lots were typical of front lawns and house fronts of California residential developments and consisted of stucco walls, garage doors, driveways, and residential lawn irrigation sprinkler systems. Each of the 6 lots also included a rainfall simulator to generate artificial rainfall events. Different pyrethroids were applied to 5 surfaces—driveway, garage door and adjacent walls, lawn, lawn perimeter (grass near the house walls), and house walls above grass. The volume of runoff water from each house lot was measured, sampled, and analyzed to determine the amount of pyrethroid mass lost from each surface. Applications to 3 of the house lots were made using the application practices typically used prior to recent label changes, and applications were made to the other 3 house lots according to the revised application procedures. Results from the house lots using the historic application procedures showed that losses of the compounds applied to the driveway and garage door (including the adjacent walls) were 99.75% of total measured runoff losses. The greatest losses were associated with significant rainfall events rather than lawn irrigation events. However, runoff losses were 40 times less using the revised application procedures recently specified on pyrethroid labels. Environ Toxicol Chem 2014;33:52–60. © 2013 The Authors. Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry published by Wiley Periodicals, Inc. on behalf of SETAC. This is an open access article under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

Grassroots movement building and preemption in the campaign for residential fire sprinklers.

Home fires account for 85% of fire deaths in the United States, the majority in 1- or 2-family homes lacking fire sprinklers. Since 1978, however, a grassroots movement has successfully promoted more than 360 local ordinances mandating sprinklers in all new residential construction, including 1- and 2-family homes. The homebuilding industry has responded by seeking state preemption of local authority, a strategy previously used by other industries concerned about protecting their profits. From 2009 through 2011, 13 states adopted laws eliminating or limiting local authority over residential fire sprinklers. This study of the residential sprinkler movement adds to our understanding of grassroots public health movements and provides additional evidence that preemption can have a negative impact on public health and safety.

Environmental Impact of Automatic Fire Sprinklers: Part 1. Residential Sprinklers Revisited in the Age of Sustainability

A recent study on the environmental impact of automatic fire sprinklers is documented in a two part series. The current paper provides a background on residential sprinkler technology from its inception until the present, and analyzes the contribution of risk factors, such as fire, on the total lifecycle carbon emissions of one- and two-family dwellings and the reduction to that contribution achieved via the use of automatic fire sprinklers. The analysis shows that the risk of fire increases the carbon emissions of a building over its’ lifecycle. The results illustrate that sound risk management is necessary to achieving sustainability and avoiding unintended consequences. These findings are especially important as society seeks to design and build more energy- and resource-efficient, environmentally sustainable buildings.

Environmental Impact of Automatic Fire Sprinklers: Part 2. Experimental Study

A recent study on the environmental impact of automatic fire sprinklers is documented in a two part series. The present paper examines the relationship of automatic fire sprinkler technology to environmental sustainability. Large-scale fire tests were conducted using identically constructed and furnished living rooms. In one test, fire extinguishment was achieved solely by fire service intervention, and in the other, a single residential automatic fire sprinkler was used to control the fire until final extinguishment was achieved by the fire service. Comparisons of the total greenhouse gas production, quantity of water required to extinguish the fire, quality of water runoff, potential impact of wastewater runoff on groundwater and surface water, and mass of materials requiring disposal between the two tests were made. The results show that in addition to providing life safety and limiting property damage, the use of automatic fire sprinklers is a key factor in achieving sustainability.

How Can I Learn More About Supply Lines for Residential Sprinkler Systems?

This month's question asks about information on residential sprinkler system supply line arrangements. The article recommends the National Fire Protection Association (NFPA) as a good resource for more than 300 codes and standards intended to minimize the possibility and effects of fire and other risks. The article discusses the NFPA Standard 13D that offers several options for connecting a sprinkler system to a public water supply.

Investigation of Sprinkler Sprays on Fire Induced Doorway Flows

Performance based methodologies are becoming increasingly common in fire safety due to the inability of prescriptive codes to account for every architectural feature. Fire Sprinkler suppression systems have long been used to provide property protection and enhance life safety. However, very few methodologies exist to account for the impact of sprinkler sprays on fire scenarios. Current methods are extremely complicated and difficult to use as an engineering tool for performance based design. Twenty-four full scale fire tests were conducted at Tyco Fire Suppression & Building Products Global Technology Center to determine a simple method for accounting for the impact of a single residential sprinkler on fire induced doorway flows. It was found that a spraying sprinkler reduced the mass flows at the doorway while maintaining two stratified layers away from the sprinkler spray. The mass flow reduction was consistent and could be predicted through the use of a simple buoyancy based equation. The current study suggests that the buoyancy equation can be altered through the use of a constant cooling coefficient (equal to 0.84 for a Tyco LFII (TY2234) sprinkler) based on the test results reported in this paper. This study is a proof of concept and the results suggest the methodology can be applicable to similar situations.

Tenability Analysis of Television Set Fires in a Sprinkler Protected Compartment

This paper describes an evaluation of the performance of a fast response residential sprinkler system in a simulated apartment in the event of a fire caused by a burning television set. The evaluation was conducted in an 8m × 4m × 2.4m high gypsum plasterboard lined compartment. A 1.2 m2 lobby was used to represent an adjoining room and a standard hollow core door connected the two spaces. The compartment was fitted with two pendent mounted fast response residential sprinkler heads, and the television sets were located in one corner of the compartment. A series of 21 tests was conducted using a tea light candle against the outside of the television casing as the ignition source. Gas analysis for CO, CO2, O2 was carried out along with measurements of visual obscuration, compartment temperature and mass loss of the fuel. Tenability conditions within the compartment were determined using Fractional Effective Dose calculations. The results showed that the sprinkler system did not respond well to the television fires. Conditions within the compartment approached or exceeded tenable limits on a number of occasions. In some instances the television set burned out completely without activating the sprinkler system. Language: ja

Economic Performance of Residential Fire Sprinkler Systems

A benefit–cost analysis is performed to measure the expected present value net benefits (PVNB) resulting from the installation of a residential fire sprinkler system in a newly constructed, single-family house. The benefits and costs associated with installation and use of a fire sprinkler system are compared across three prototypical single-family house types: colonial, townhouse, and ranch. Each of the house types varies by design, size, and fire sprinkler affordability. Six fire sprinkler system designs are evaluated: a multipurpose network system, three stand-alone systems, and two stand-alone systems equipped with a backflow preventer. The sprinkler designs vary by installation cost (materials and labor cost) and required annual maintenance, but all were designed to meet the NFPA 13D standard. The estimated benefits of fire sprinklers include reductions in the following: the risk of civilian fatalities and injuries, homeowner insurance premiums, uninsured direct property losses, and uninsured indirect costs. Results show that residential sprinkler systems not requiring expensive annual upkeep or maintenance are economical. The expected PVNB in 2005 dollars is estimated as $2,967 for the colonial-style house, $3,099 for the townhouse, and $4,166 for the ranch-style house, given installation of the lowest life-cycle cost sprinkler system in each of the house types. A sensitivity analysis that measures the variability of the results to changes in the modeling assumptions confirms the robustness of the baseline analysis.

Help Wanted: Task Group Seeks Member Input

This article presents background and historical information on work completed by the Residential Fire Service Meter Task Group related to residential fire sprinkler metering. The article presents three divergent positions on the issue that include: residential fire sprinkler branch supply lines should not be metered; sprinkler branch supply lines should be metered with standard water meters; and, a new standard should be created with specifications for new special meters for residential fire sprinkler application.