Residential Parcels Research Articles

The impact of land development regulation on residential tree cover: An empirical evaluation using high-resolution IKONOS imagery

Public sector policies regulating land development can have a major influence on the environmental impacts of urban development, yet few empirical studies have examined the impact of these policies. Our study attempted to address this gap by examining the relationship between a land development code associated with the protection of trees and the extent of urban tree cover on residential parcels. We developed an accurate very high resolution urban tree cover classification using IKONOS imagery, quantified parcel-specific tree cover and evaluated the relationship between year of construction, adoption of a tree ordinance and extent of canopy cover in Tampa, Florida, USA and in nearby areas lacking similar regulation. Statistical results revealed significantly greater tree cover on parcels with homes built after compared to before adoption of tree protection policies, despite a trend toward increased building cover. After controlling for the effects of spatial dependence and relevant physical and socio-demographic characteristics at the census block, multivariate regression results indicate the percentage of homes built after implementing the policy was a strong predictor of increased tree cover. These results and comparisons with nearby areas further suggest Tampa's 1974 tree protection regulations appears to have been effective at increasing tree cover, but other influential factors were also at work. This study demonstrates the potential for evaluating the impact of specific land development policies using remote sensing and other spatial data analysis techniques. In addition, we argue that scientific evidence of the effectiveness of past policy should be used a guide for the creation of future land development regulation.

The impact of down‐zoning on land values

PurposeThis paper aims to build a mathematical model to determine the price of an acre of developable land, whether it is part of a large open tract (farm) or a smaller residential parcel that can legally be subdivided. The primary purpose of the model is to explore the effect of various minimum lot‐size regulations on the price of these two types of vacant land. The study also attempts to explain apparently conflicting findings that have recently appeared in empirical studies of “down‐zoning” in the states of Maryland and New Jersey.Design/methodology/approachThe mathematical model of land value is based on principles of asset valuation under uncertainty at various locations within a metropolitan area. The price of an acre of land is modeled as the present value of a stream of indirect utility to homeowners, and economic rents to farmers, developers or landlords, depending on an endogenous date of development. The cases of New Jersey and Maryland are compared using parameterized simulations, with minimum lot size allowed to vary.FindingsThe simulations reconcile earlier empirical studies on Maryland and New Jersey. The observed absence of any price effect of down‐zoning in rural Maryland appears to be caused by the fact that development is not imminent there. In New Jersey, development is imminent virtually everywhere, and a high proportion of today's vacant land value is due to its development potential. This means that down‐zoning will typically lead to dramatic declines in vacant land value in New Jersey.Research limitations/implicationsThe study relies on state averages, so its results should not be applied to particular parcels in Maryland or New Jersey. The study incorporates uncertainty in expected developer profits, but not in future political decisions.Practical implicationsBy clarifying the context in which zoning changes will or will not lead to decline in a landowner's asset value, the study can inform legal and political debates over re‐zonings in the USA. Included in these debates is the claim that some re‐zonings violate the “takings” clause of the USA constitution.Originality/valueThe majority of papers on this subject are empirical, using a hedonic or an appraisal methodology. This paper provides a coherent theoretical model of per‐acre land prices under different levels of zoning restriction. It can be used for simulation or prediction with relatively few input parameters.

Impacts of conservation easements for threat abatement and fire management in a rural oak woodland landscape

Rural residential development can impact habitat and complicate fire management. Conservation easements are created to prevent development but are rarely assessed for their influence on development patterns. In the Lassen Foothills, California, The Nature Conservancy (TNC) holds over 37,000 ha of mostly public-funded conservation easements on ranchland dominated by blue oak ( Quercus douglasii) woodland. For this region we modeled land use through 2050 under two scenarios, with and without conservation easements, using a rule-based growth model. We mapped development footprints on 760 rural residential parcels through automated remote sensing. From calculated footprint sizes we projected site-level habitat loss for each scenario. We also projected the influence of development patterns on fire management. With easements present the Lassen Foothills would gain about 184 new homes, compared with 223 homes if easements were absent. With an average residential footprint size of 0.34 ± 0.25 ha (mean ± SD), we found that easements slightly reduce vegetation conversion, protecting an additional 16.8 ha than were protected by the general plan alone. Without easements, scattered development may alter fire management on 12,370 ha (17.5% of undeveloped wildfire containment areas) by requiring more fire suppression and reducing options for prescribed burning. Low development pressure and county land use policies maintain very low residential densities in the Lassen Foothills. The easement program may increase options for fire management by preserving large landscapes. This case illustrates the limited effectiveness of land acquisition in preventing development in a low-threat landscape, and demonstrates the utility of growth models for prioritizing conservation investments.

Using remote sensing and GIS technology for an improved decision support: a case study of residential water use in El Paso, Texas

This paper presents a case study of using remote sensing and geographic information system technology for extracting green-surface areas of a residential neighborhood (933.20 acres) of El Paso, Texas. Four IKONOS images (September 2000) and a parcel layer were used to identify the green-surface areas which is an important variable in modelling the outdoor water use of individual households. The modelled outdoor water use together with indoor water use was compared with water meter reading and was used to analyse the behaviour of individual household-based water consumption. The modelling processes improve our understanding of water consumption and resource distributions so that a better decision in water management can be made. The results showed that pervious (green) and impervious surfaces constitute 26% and 74% of the total area of the 2422 parcel lots, and 21% and 79% of the entire study area, respectively. Average indoor water use of 2374 residential parcels is 31 m3 (or 11 ccf) per month, derived by averaging the water use of December, January and February. Estimation of outdoor water demand for the landscape was based on monthly potential evapotranspiration information and the delineated green-surface area of each parcel. Thus, the difference between the water meter reading and estimated (indoor and outdoor) water uses can be calculated. This study provides an alternative and quick approach to help water departments in efficiently monitoring the water use of each household.

Assessing Impervious Surface Connectivity and Applications for Watershed Management1

Abstract: Although total impervious area (TIA) is often used as an indicator of urban disturbance, recent studies suggest that the subset of impervious surfaces that route stormwater runoff directly to streams via stormwater pipes, called directly connected impervious area (DCIA), may be a better predictor of stream ecosystem alteration. We evaluated the differences between TIA and DCIA in the Shepherd Creek catchment, a small (1.85‐km2), suburban basin in Cincinnati, Ohio. Imperviousness determinations were calculated based on publicly available geographic information system (GIS) data and parcel‐scale field assessments, and these direct assessments were compared to DCIA calculated from published, empirical relationships. Impervious and semi‐impervious area comprised 13.1% of the catchment area, with 56.3% of the impervious area connected. When summarized by subcatchments (0.26‐1.85 km2), TIA measured in the field (11‐23%) was considerably higher than that calculated from the National Land Cover Data Imperviousness Layer (7‐18%). In contrast, TIA calculated based on aerial photos was similar to TIA calculated from field assessments, thus indicating that photo interpretation may be adequate for catchment‐scale (>25 ha) TIA determinations. While these GIS data sources can be used to calculate TIA, on‐site assessments were necessary to accurately determine DCIA within residential parcels. There was a wide variation in percent connectivity across parcels, and, subsequently, DCIA was not accurately predicted from empirical relationships with TIA. We discuss applications of DCIA data that highlight the importance of parcel‐scale field assessments for managing suburban watersheds.

Residential Land Values in Urbanizing Areas

Zoning decisions related to residential lot size and density affect residential land value. Effects of size on residential parcel value in Roanoke County, VA, are estimated with fixed effects hedonic models. Parcel size; elevation; soil permeability; proximity to urban areas, malls, and roads; and location influence parcel value, but the effects vary by value of construction and development status. Parcel value per square meter declines with increasing parcel size. The estimated relationships could be used to evaluate zoning decisions in terms of land values and tax revenues if model estimation uncertainties and responses by developers to zoning strategies are considered.

Influence of Natural Amenities on Residential Property Values in a Rural Setting

Hedonic pricing has been used to identify values of nonmarket natural resource amenities. Most of these studies have been completed in suburban or urban communities rather than rural areas. The hedonic pricing study presented here includes developed residential parcel transactions occurring in a rural county in Michigan. We develop two hedonic pricing models using transaction data for two rural residential parcel types: developed parcels located in subdivisions, and developed parcels not located in subdivisions. Proximity to lakes and subdivision open areas positively affected the values of some parcel types, while proximity to forested land, publicly owned land, streams, and a National Scenic River did not have a positive influence. Results found in this study completed in a rural setting contrast with the results of other studies completed in suburban and urban settings.

Spillovers from tax increment financing districts: Implications for housing price appreciation

Abstract Tax increment financing (TIF) has been both applauded and castigated for causing rapid appreciation of nearby residential properties. We study the spillover effects of TIF on the appreciation of single-family Chicago homes that sold multiple times between 1993 and 1999. After controlling for structural characteristics of the home, neighborhood conditions, and information about the nature and scale of activities within TIF districts, we find that proximity to industrial TIF districts is actually associated with a decrease in the rate of appreciation. However, proximity to mixed-use TIF districts that contain both commercial and residential parcels increases the appreciation of nearby houses. We discuss some of the policy implications of our findings in the conclusion.

Hydrologic processes at the urban residential scale

AbstractIn the face of increasing urbanization, there is growing interest in application of microscale hydrologic solutions to minimize storm runoff and conserve water at the source. In this study, a physically based numerical model was developed to understand hydrologic processes better at the urban residential scale and the interaction of these processes among different best management practices (BMPs). This model simulates hydrologic processes using an hourly interval for over a full year or for specific storm events. The model was applied to treatment and control single‐family residential parcels in Los Angeles, California. Data collected from the control and treatment sites over 2 years were used to calibrate and validate the model. Annual storm runoff to the street was eliminated by 97% with installation of rain gutters, a driveway interceptor, and lawn retention basin. Evaluated individually, the driveway interceptor was the most effective BMP for storm runoff reduction (65%), followed by the rain gutter installation (28%), and lawn converted to retention basin (12%). An 11 m3 cistern did not substantially reduce runoff, but provided 9% of annual landscape irrigation demand. Simulated landscape irrigation water use was reduced 53% by increasing irrigation system efficiency, and adjusting application rates monthly based on plant water demand. The model showed that infiltration and surface runoff processes were particularly sensitive to the soil's physical properties and its effective depth. Replacing the existing loam soil with clay soil increased annual runoff discharge to the street by 63% when climate and landscape features remained unchanged. Copyright © 2006 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Land use planning and surface heat island formation: A parcel-based radiation flux approach

This article presents a study of residential parcel design and surface heat island formation in a major metropolitan region of the southeastern United States. Through the integration of high-resolution multispectral data (10 m) with property tax records for over 100,000 single-family residential parcels in the Atlanta, Georgia, metropolitan region, the influence of the size and material composition of residential land use on an indicator of surface heat island formation is reported. In contrast to previous work on the urban heat island, this study derives a parcel-based indicator of surface warming to permit the impact of land use planning regulations governing the density and design of development on the excess surface flux of heat energy to be measured. The results of this study suggest that the contribution of individual land parcels to regional surface heat island formation could be reduced by approximately 40% through the adoption of specific land use planning policies, such as zoning and subdivision regulations, and with no modifications to the size or albedo of the residential structure.

Urban Form and Watershed Management: How Zoning Influences Residential Stormwater Volumes

This paper reports the results of a study on residential parcel design and development-induced stormwater runoff in the City of Madison, Wisconsin. To assess the influence of municipal zoning and subdivision regulations on residential stormwater production, high-resolution aerial photography and property tax data for over 38000 single-family residential parcels were used to measure the impervious cover and modeled runoff associated with a typical two-year storm. The results of the analysis suggest that stormwater runoff volumes could be significantly reduced with only modest changes to municipal land-development regulations and with no reduction in the size of the residential structure. Following the presentation of the methodology and findings, the paper concludes with a discussion of targeted revisions to zoning and subdivision regulations that, if implemented, could reduce the runoff volume from new residential parcels in Madison by over 30%.

Control Selection and Pesticide Exposure Assessment Via GIS in Prostate Cancer Studies

Pesticide exposures have recently been linked to prostate cancer, but accurate exposure assessment to date has been challenging. Additionally, historical exposures have rarely been examined. The utility of a geographic information system (GIS)-based model for assessing residential exposure to pesticides is examined in a population-based case-control setting among groups easily recruited as control subjects. Historical pesticide and land-use data were used to generate exposure measures for two distinct pesticides previously linked to prostate cancer risk for control series and prostate cancer cases in three rural California counties. Simple estimates of residential exposures for different exposure periods are compared between case and control groups and the value of complete residential histories is examined. Residential exposure to methyl bromide based on current address resulted in an overestimation of exposure for distant exposure periods, whereas exposures to organochlorines were similar regardless of availability of historical residence information. A response bias was detected in Medicare controls such that unexposed elderly control subjects were characterized by a higher response rate. The frequency and amount of application of pesticides seem to affect the bias introduced into GIS-based exposure assessments. Inclusion of subjects' complete residential histories into the computation of exposure estimates seems to reduce bias from this source, but it may also introduce an additional bias through control self-selection. The use of randomly sampled controls from Medicare and residential parcels listings independent of subject response seems to result in the opportunity for relatively unbiased estimates of pesticide exposures.

Residential Development Pattern and Intraneighborhood Infrastructure Provision

This paper examines the relationship between residential development pattern and intraneighborhood infrastructure provision based on a case study of the cities in Story County, Iowa. The dataset consists of 16,331 residential parcels in 1,755 residential blocks. Residential development pattern is characterized by residential parcel density and an aggregated parcel shape index. Factor analysis shows that the length of streets is an appropriate indicator to represent overall infrastructure provision. Logarithmic multiple regression analysis reveals a good relationship between residential development pattern and infrastructure provision variables. Parcel shape has a stronger influence on infrastructure provision than parcel density does, and together they explain more than 55% of the variation in infrastructure provision. The results of this empirical study establish a means to evaluate development proposals on the basis of development pattern and the associated infrastructure provision cost.

Paving over paradise: how land use regulations promote residential imperviousness

This paper examines the influence of residential zoning and subdivision regulations on the extent and distribution of impervious land cover in Madison, WI. Specifically, an analysis of approximately 40,000 single-family residential parcels in the Madison region is presented to assess the impact of land development regulations governing lot size, lot frontage, front yard setbacks, street width, and the neighborhood street network configuration on total parcel impervious cover. The results of this research suggest that lower density patterns of single-family development are associated with a larger area of impervious cover per unit of occupancy than higher density patterns. The paper argues that parcel-based analyses of environmental impact are needed to evaluate the role of specific land use planning policies on regional environmental quality. Based on the results of the analysis, we identify three specific strategies for reducing residential impervious area through municipal land development regulations.

Historical pesticide exposure in California using pesticide use reports and land-use surveys: an assessment of misclassification error and bias.

We used California's Pesticide Use Report (PUR) and land-use survey data to conduct a simulation study evaluating the potential consequences of misclassifying residential exposure from proximity to agricultural pesticide application in health effect studies. We developed a geographic model linking the PUR with crop location data from land-use surveys to assess the impact of exposure misclassification from simpler exposure models based solely on PUR or land-use data. We simulated the random selection of population controls recruited into a hypothetical case-control study within an agricultural region. Using residential parcel data, we derived annual exposure prevalences, sensitivity, and specificity for five pesticides and relied on the PUR plus land-use model as the "gold standard." Based on these estimates, we calculated the attenuation of prespecified true odds ratios (ORs), assuming nondifferential exposure misclassification. True ORs were severely attenuated a) when residential exposure status was based on a larger geographic area yielding higher sensitivity but low specificity for exposure, in contrast to relying on a smaller area and increasing specificity; b) for less frequently applied pesticides; and c) with increasing mobility of residents among the study population. Considerable effect estimate attenuation also occurred when we used residential distance to crops as a proxy for pesticide exposure. Finally, exposure classifications based on annual instead of seasonal summaries of PUR resulted in highly attenuated ORs, especially during seasons when applications of specific pesticides were unlikely to occur. These results underscore the importance of increasing the spatiotemporal resolution of pesticide exposure models to minimize misclassification.

Using Spatial Statistics to Examine the Pattern of Urban Land Development in Halifax–Dartmouth

This article examines the locational patterns of population and employment and the resultant changes in urban form in the Halifax–Dartmouth region between 1970 and 1996. The article employs the univariate and bivariate K function to measure spatial dependence or clustering within and between the classes of residential and commercial land parcels. The results of the K function estimates suggest that residential land parcels cluster together, commercial land parcels cluster together, and residential and commercial land parcels have become more clustered over time. Evidence of clustering provides insight into the changing urban form of the region and possible multinucleation.

Locational uncertainty in georeferencing public health datasets

The assignment of locational attributes to a study subject in epidemiologic analyses is commonly referred to as georeferencing. When georeferencing study subjects to a point location using their residential street address, most researchers rely on the street centerline data model. This study assessed the potential locational bias introduced using street centerline data. It also evaluated georeferencing effects on a location-dependent, exposure assessment process. For comparison purposes, subjects were georeferenced to the center of their residential parcel of land using digitized parcel maps. A total of 10,026 study subjects residing in Jefferson County, Alabama were georeferenced using both street centerline and residential parcel methods. The mean nondirectional, linear distance between points georeferenced using both methods was 246 ft with a range of 11 to 13,260 ft. Correlation coefficients comparing differences in exposure estimates were generated for all 10,026 subjects. Coefficients increased as the geographic areas of analysis around study subjects increased, indicating the influence of nondifferential exposure misclassification.

Urban Form and Thermal Efficiency: How the Design of Cities Influences the Urban Heat Island Effect

This article presents findings from a study on residential development patterns and urban heat island formation in the Atlanta, Georgia, metropolitan region. High-resolution thermal imagery collected by the National Aeronautical and Space Administration (NASA) is used in conjunction with parcel-level tax records to examine the interaction between the design of single-family residential parcels and the emission of radiant heat energy. Results from a path analysis illustrate that lower density patterns of residential development contribute more radiant heat energy to surface heat island formation than higher density development patterns within the Atlanta region. Compact moderate-to-high-density new construction and area-based tree ordinances are recommended as policy strategies for mitigating the effects of urban development on regional climate change.

Property Tax Auction Sales

We analyze sales of tax delinquent properties offered at a single property tax auction. Data on 1,073 parcels offered at the 1987 tax sale in Indianapolis are used. The two-stage Heckman selectivity model is used for the estimation. The results indicate that more valuable, developed, residential parcels located outside of the central city are more likely to sell. Higher minimum bids decrease the probability of sale. Parcels offered later in the auction are less likely to sell. The selling price is associated with a property's assessed value, with a negative premium for properties located in the city center.

Measuring the Extent of Property Tax Capitalization for Single Family Residences

In recent years there has been a revival of interest in measuring the extent to which property tax levels are capitalized into the market values of individual residences. Recent taxpayer reaction to higher property tax rates and government spending, resulting in actions such as Proposition 13 in California, has undoubtedly contributed to renewed interest in this question. The question may be simply stated as given two residential parcels alike in every respect (including receipt of local government services) but subject to different property tax rates, to what extent is the market value of the house with the higher tax rate reduced relative to its neighbor? The argument is a special case of the Tiebout [8] hypothesis, which states that if we consider differences in local government services then housing values will vary directly with receipt of those services and inversely with the cost of those services. Measuring the extent of tax capitalization is important because it leads to inference as to who bears the burden of changes in property taxes. If taxes are capitalized, then buyers benefit when taxes are raised and sellers benefit when they are lowered. For rental property, tax capitalization implies that owners realize capital gains when taxes are lowered and capital losses when taxes are raised.