Resident Fathers Research Articles

Longitudinal associations between parent-child relationships in middle childhood and child-perceived loneliness.

Loneliness may affect children's psychological well-being and academic achievement. Parent-child relationships have been consistently associated with child adjustment. However, parental antecedents of child loneliness have been relatively understudied. Guided by attachment theory, we examined the trajectories of father-child and mother-child relationship closeness and conflict, and their associations with trajectories of child loneliness with National Institute of Child Health and Human Development (NICHD) Study of Early Child Care and Youth Development (SECCYD) data to understand parents' roles in child loneliness in middle childhood. In Grades 1 (Mage = 6.57, SD = .29), 3, 4, and 5, both resident fathers and mothers reported on parent-child relationships. At Grades 1, 3, and 5, children reported on their loneliness. Loneliness declined from Grade 1 to Grade 5. After controlling for socioeconomic status (SES), the slope of father-child relationship closeness was negatively associated with the slope of loneliness for girls (n = 341), but not for boys (n = 354). The more slowly father-child closeness declined, the more quickly girls' loneliness declined. These findings highlight the role of father-child relationships in child loneliness for girls. Future research on child loneliness should take both maternal and paternal roles into consideration. (PsycINFO Database Record

The association of fathers' parental warmth and parenting stress to child behavior problems

This study examines whether fathers' parental warmth and parenting stress were associated with behavior problems when children were approximately 36-months of age, beyond the influence of maternal behaviors. Study participants were 3342 low-income fathers and mothers who participated in the Building Strong Families (BSF) study. Cross-sectional regression analyses indicated that for unmarried nonresidential families, fathers' parental warmth and parenting stress were associated with child internalizing behavior problems; and fathers' parenting stress only was marginally associated with child externalizing behavior problems. For consistently cohabiting residential fathers, only fathers' parenting stress was marginally associated with child internalizing behavior problems. No associations of fathers' parental warmth and parenting stress on either internalizing or externalizing behavior problems were observed in married families. Overall, study results suggest that fathers' parental warmth and parenting stress may have a modest positive association on the development of child internalizing behavior problems particularly in vulnerable families (i.e., families in which fathers were nonresidential).

Measures of Father Engagement for Nonresident Fathers

ObjectiveTo develop reliable and valid measures of nonresident father engagement.BackgroundAlthough engagement measures exist for resident fathers, they have not been validated for nonresident fathers. Without valid and reliable measures, research on and programs for these fathers are limited in their ability to capture this salient dimension of fathering.MethodFrom a focus group of 71 nonresident biological fathers, father–child engagement scales were created. Separate scales were created for fathers of children aged 0 to 1 years, 1 to 5 years, 6 to 11 years, and 12 to 18 years. Scales were administered to 542 nonresident (primarily low income) fathers to test reliability and convergent and predictive validity.ResultsAnalyses identified a “caregiving play” domain of engagement across all age groups. For fathers of children 0 to 1 years, a “cognitive stimulation” domain emerged. For all age groups, a “support” domain emerged. All measures had acceptable reliability and (except in 1 instance) were related to at least 1 validity construct. Measures were nonequivalent across groups except for support in 2 groups.ConclusionMeasures of nonresident father engagement had good reliability and validity. Further, with a minimal number of items, the scales are relatively easy and cost‐effective to administer.ImplicationsWith reliable and valid measures of engagement, those researching or intervening with nonresident fathers can more accurately capture this highly relevant construct.

Hispanic Young Males' Mental Health From Adolescence Through the Transition to Fatherhood.

The objective of the current study was to examine the associations between the transition to fatherhood and depressive symptoms scores among Hispanic men. Using the sample of Hispanic men included in the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent to Adult Health, depressive symptom scores were examined from 1994 to 2008. A “fatherhood-year” data set was created that included the men’s Center for Epidemiologic Studies Depression Scale (CES-D) scores as well as residency status with the child. By regressing age-adjusted standardized depressive symptom scores, associations between mental health scores of Hispanic men and their transition to fatherhood were identified. Among the 1,715 Hispanic men, resident (n = 502) and nonresident (n = 99) Hispanic fathers reported an increase in depressive symptom scores (CES-D) during the first 5 years after entrance into fatherhood (β = 0.150, 95% CI [0.062, 0.239] and β = 0.153, 95% CI [0.034, 0.271], respectively) compared to non-fathers (n = 1,114), representing an increase of 10% for resident fathers and a 15% for nonresident fathers. Hispanic non-fathers reported a decrease in depressive symptom scores (CES-D) during parallel ages. Hispanic fathers, regardless of residency status, reported increased depressive symptoms in the first 5 years after the transition into fatherhood, a period critical in child development.

The intergenerational transmission of educational attainment among non-residential fathers and their children

Research on the intergenerational transmission of educational attainment tends to assume that children are raised in traditional two-parent families. However, due to the rising prevalence of divorce, non-residential fatherhood is increasingly common in Western societies. This study investigates the differences in intergenerational transmission between residential and non-residential fathers because non-residential fatherhood might disrupt mechanisms that are assumed to be crucial for intergenerational transmission, such as regular contact between parents and children. In addition, we examine three factors that might explain why some non-residential fathers are better able to transmit their educational attainment than others: (1) the number of years a father lived with the child prior to divorce (exposure), (2) the age of the child at the time of divorce (timing) and (3) the year in which non-residential fatherhood started (cohort differences). The hypotheses are based on Coleman’s concept of ‘within-family social capital’. Our study focuses on the Dutch context and we use the Netherlands Kinship Panel Study (NKPS) (birth cohorts 1960–1985) as well as register data from the System of Social statistical Datasets (SSD) (birth cohort 1995) of Statistics Netherlands. The results of the NKPS indicate that the association between the educational attainment of fathers and children is weaker for non-residential fathers than for residential fathers. However, the difference between residential and non-residential fathers is almost absent in the more recent cohorts of the SSD. We ascribe those cohort differences to an increase in shared custody arrangements since the late 1990s.

FATHERS’ IMPORTANCE IN ADOLESCENTS’ ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT

Many studies have investigated mothers’ impact on students’ achievement, yet little is known about how various father types impact students’ school performance. This study examines 6 mutually exclusive categories of father type: resident biological fathers, resident stepfathers, resident adoptive fathers, non­resident biological fathers, unknown biological fathers, and deceased fathers. Adolescents’ school performance from seventh through twelfth grade is examined using data from 3 waves of the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent Health (Add Health), a nationally representative United States secondary data source. Findings indicate different types of fathers have distinct and independent positive associations with adolescents’ school achievement, after controlling for mother involvement. Adolescents with resident biological fathers had higher school performance than adolescents with nonresident fathers. Adolescents with stepfathers had higher rates of school failure than their peers living with their biological parents. The lowest achievement and the highest risk of school failure and course failure were experienced by those adolescents who did not have a resident father figure and didn’t know the identity of their fathers. Implications include the need to model for the unique influence of father involvement and father type on academic achievement, and the inclusion of unique family contexts in efforts to increase adolescents’ school involvement and integration.

Parental Divorce, Relationships with Fathers and Mothers, and Children’s Romantic Relationships in Young Adulthood

The current study examined parent–child relationships during adolescence as a moderator between earlier parental divorce and children’s romantic relationships in emerging adulthood. In addition, the study examined the potential different outcomes in children’s romantic relationships according to the gender of parents and children as well as to fathers’ different residence types. The data for this study came from a 22-year 9-wave investigated longitudinal study, Michigan Study of Life Transitions (MSALT), which began in 1983. The sample for the current study was 520 (female = 311 and male = 209) from ‘always-married’ and 154 (female = 107 and male = 47) from ‘divorced’ families. Some of main findings are that residential father–child relationships during adolescence were more critical for children’s satisfaction in their romantic relationships in emerging adulthood than non-residential divorced father–child relationships, and that relationships with fathers during adolescence mattered for daughters’ satisfaction in their romantic relationships in emerging adulthood, but not for the sons’ satisfaction. Possible explanations of the findings, limitations, and strengths in the current study are discussed, and future research directions are addressed.

Shared Residence After Separation: A Review and New Findings from the Netherlands

In 2009 the Dutch legislator introduced a law that sought to encourage shared residence. We summarize key findings on shared residence from prior work in the Netherlands, and present new data. Previous research showed that shared residence has increased steadily in recent decades. Our recent estimates revealed that shared residence increased from nearly 20% in 2008 (prereform) to 28% in 2010 (postreform). Official court data showed a decline again to a little over 20% in 2013. We also found shared residence to be less a stable arrangement than mother or father residence. Consistent with earlier studies, parents with shared residence were found to be well‐resourced parents with little conflict and few personal problems. These parents were also more likely to maintain this arrangement, but the instability of shared residence also appeared to be related to practical circumstances and to children's needs. Earlier findings on the consequences of shared residence for child and parent well‐being were mixed, but suggest positive effects.

Social Values Perceptions of Fourth Grade Primary School Students

This study was conducted with the aim of determining the perceptions of social values of fourth grade primary school students. The research is a descriptive study based on survey model. The study sample group is composed of 451 fourth grade students studying in four different schools in Siirt city center selected via convenience sampling method. The Perception Scale for Social Values developed by Bakaç (2013) was used as data collection instrument. There are a total of 23 five-point likert-type items on The Perception Scale for Social Values, of which 19 items are designed to measure positive perceptions and 4 items are designed to measure negative perceptions. Cronbach-Alpha reliability coefficients of the scale are .88 for the first sub-scale, .72 for the second sub- scale and .86 for the total scale. Descriptive statistics, Mann-Whitney U-Test and Kruskal Wallis methods were used for data analysis. The findings of the study indicate that the social value perceptions of fourth grade students show no significant difference with regard to gender or education level of mother. Whereas it was concluded that the social value perceptions of fourth grade students show a significant difference with regard to place of residence and education level of father

Resident Fathers' Positive Engagement, Family Poverty, and Change in Child Behavior Problems

ObjectiveTo investigate the role of fathers' positive engagement as a protective factor in the development of children's behavior problems and whether this buffering effect differs by family poverty status.BackgroundChildren who have behavior problems at early ages are more likely to show persistent behavior problems over time. Fathers' roles in the development and persistence of child behavior problems have been less investigated than mothers' roles.MethodLongitudinal survey data from 762 constant‐resident‐father families participating in the Fragile Families and Child Wellbeing Study were used. Mothers reported on children's internalizing and externalizing behavior problems when the focal child was 5 and 9 years of age, and fathers reported on their frequency of positive engagement with children at child age 5. Data were analyzed using moderated moderation regression analyses.ResultsChildren living in greater family poverty at age 5 showed more internalizing and externalizing behavior problems at age 9, but greater positive engagement by fathers weakened the association between family poverty and children's later behavior problems. Moreover, fathers' positive engagement appeared to disrupt continuity in internalizing behavior problems from early to middle childhood for children in families living below the poverty level.ConclusionFathers' positive engagement may serve as a protective factor for children's social–emotional development.ImplicationsEmphasizing fathers' positive engagement in prevention and intervention programs designed to lower children's risk for behavior problems may have potential value.

Predictors of Father Investment of Time and Finances: The Specificity of Resources, Relationships, and Parenting Beliefs

The present study examined multiple domains of father involvement and their correlates in a sample of 478 ethnically and racially diverse low-income fathers of 24-month-old children. Regression analyses revealed that paternal resources related to most forms of involvement: Education was related to caregiving and cognitive activities, and income was associated with financial provision. Resident fathers spent more time with their children across several activities, and father–mother disagreements were negatively associated with financial provision. Fathers who believed their role as financial provider to be highly important reported more financial provision, whereas fathers who reported investment in their children’s development to be highly important were more involved in caregiving. Fathers who endorsed traditional gender norms participated in less caregiving and cognitive activities. Findings indicate the specificity of correlates of involvement and the need to consider resources, relationships, and parenting beliefs in interventions that support fathers’ physical and financial investment in their children.

Early Father Involvement and Subsequent Child Behaviour at Ages 3, 5 and 7 Years: Prospective Analysis of the UK Millennium Cohort Study.

ObjectiveFathers are increasingly involved in care of their babies and young children. We assessed the association of resident fathers’ involvement with subsequent behaviour of their children, examining boys and girls separately.MethodsWe used longitudinal data from the UK Millennium Cohort Study for children born in 2000–2001, divided into three separate analysis periods: ages 9 months to 3 years, 3 to 5 years, and 5 to 7 years. By exploratory factor analysis of self-reported attitudes and engagement in caring activities, we derived composite measures of various types of father involvement at 9 months, 3 and 5 years. Where possible we created equivalent measures of mother involvement. Child behaviour was assessed by the Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire (SDQ), which was completed by the mother when the child was aged 3, 5 and 7 years. We estimated gender-specific odds ratios for behaviour problems per quintile of father involvement, using separate logistic regression models for boys and girls in each analysis period. We controlled for a wide range of potential confounders: characteristics of the child (temperament and development at 9 months, and illness and exact age at outcome), equivalent mother involvement where appropriate, and factors related to socioeconomic status, household change, and parental well-being, where statistically significant.ResultsPaternal positive parenting beliefs at age 9 months and increased frequency of creative play at age 5 years were significantly associated with lower risk of subsequent behaviour problems (SDQ total difficulties) in both boys and girls (p<0.05), odds ratios ranging between 0.81 and 0.89 per quintile of involvement. No associations were observed for other composite measures of caring activity by the father at 9 months, 3 years or 5 years.ConclusionQuality of parenting, rather than the division of routine care between parents, was associated with child behavioural outcomes.

Father involvement and children’s psychological adjustment: maternal and paternal acceptance as mediators

ABSTRACTResearch has shown that father involvement and children’s perceived parental warmth contribute significantly to children’s psychological adjustment. This study examines the mediating role of parental acceptance (i.e. that of mothers and fathers) between the father’s involvement and the child’s psychological adjustment in terms of personality dispositions and behavioral problems (internalizing and externalizing). The sample was composed of 1036 non-clinical children from 9 to 19 years old (45.1% males) who completed the Parental Acceptance‒Rejection Questionnaire, the Personality Assessment Questionnaire, the Youth Self-Report, and the Father Involvement Scale. The use of a structural equation model revealed that both father involvement and parental acceptance made significant and independent contributions to children’s outcomes. However, relationships between father involvement and children’s outcomes were mediated by both paternal acceptance and paternal acceptance via maternal acceptance. Father’s residential status, and children’s sex and age were considered as moderators. The father involvement in resident fathers had a stronger impact on perceived paternal acceptance, and father involvement on children’s psychological adjustment was no longer significant for boys (not girls) when parental acceptance is considered as mediator. No age differences were found in the tested model. In conclusion, the findings show that the father’s involvement creates an interpersonal context of love and warmth by which both the father and the mother increase the child’s psychological adjustment.

Fathers' Perceived Reasons for Their Underrepresentation in Child Health Research and Strategies to Increase Their Involvement.

Purpose Examine fathers' perceived reasons for their lack of inclusion in pediatric research and strategies to increase their participation. Description We conducted expert interviews with researchers and practitioners (N=13) working with fathers to inform the development of an online survey. The survey-which measured fathers' perceived reasons for their underrepresentation in pediatric research, recommended recruitment venues, and research personnel and study characteristics valued by fathers-was distributed online and in-person to fathers. Assessment Respondents included 303 fathers. Over 80% of respondents reported that fathers are underrepresented in pediatric research because they have not been asked to participate. Frequently recommended recruitment venues included community sports events (52%), social service programs (48%) and the internet (60%). Compared with white fathers, more non-white fathers recommended public transit (19% vs. 10%, p=.02), playgrounds (16% vs. 6%, p=.007) and barber shops (34% vs. 14%, p<.0001) and fewer recommended doctors' offices (31% vs. 43%, p=.046) as recruitment venues. Compared with residential fathers (100% resident with the target child), more non-residential fathers recommended social services programs (45% vs. 63%, p=.03) and public transit (10% vs. 27%, p=.001) and fewer recommended the workplace (17% vs. 40%, p=.002) as recruitment venues. Study brevity, perceived benefits for fathers and their families, and the credibility of the lead organization were valued by fathers. Conclusion Fathers' participation in pediatric research may increase if researchers explicitly invite father to participate, target father-focused recruitment venues, clearly communicate the benefits of the research for fathers and their families and adopt streamlined study procedures.

Fathers' Roles in the Care and Development of Their Children: The Role of Pediatricians.

Fathers' involvement in and influence on the health and development of their children have increased in a myriad of ways in the past 10 years and have been widely studied. The role of pediatricians in working with fathers has correspondingly increased in importance. This report reviews new studies of the epidemiology of father involvement, including nonresidential as well as residential fathers. The effects of father involvement on child outcomes are discussed within each phase of a child's development. Particular emphasis is placed on (1) fathers' involvement across childhood ages and (2) the influence of fathers' physical and mental health on their children. Implications and advice for all child health providers to encourage and support father involvement are outlined.

Fathers' Investments of Money and Time Across Residential Contexts.

Fathers' roles in family life have changed dramatically over the past 50 years. In addition to ongoing breadwinning responsibilities, many fathers are now involved in direct caregiving and engagement with children. Yet there is considerable variation in what fathers do, especially depending on whether they live with or away from their child. In this article, the authors use data from the Fragile Families and Child Wellbeing Study (N = 3,869) to describe how fathers' economic capacities (money) and direct involvement with children (time) are associated over child ages 1 to 9 for resident versus nonresident fathers, net of confounding factors. They found suggestive evidence that money and time investments operate differently across residential contexts: Resident fathers experience a trade-off between market work and time involved with children. In contrast, nonresident fathers' higher economic capacities are associated with more time involvement, underscoring the greater challenge for such fathers to remain actively involved.

Longitudinal Study of Body Mass Index in Young Males and the Transition to Fatherhood.

Despite a growing understanding that the social determinants of health have an impact on body mass index (BMI), the role of fatherhood on young men's BMI is understudied. This longitudinal study examines BMI in young men over time as they transition from adolescence into fatherhood in a nationally representative sample. Data from all four waves of the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent Health supported a 20-year longitudinal analysis of 10,253 men beginning in 1994. A "fatherhood-year" data set was created and changes in BMI were examined based on fatherhood status (nonfather, nonresident father, resident father), fatherhood years, and covariates. Though age is positively associated with BMI over all years for all men, comparing nonresident and resident fathers with nonfathers reveals different trajectories based on fatherhood status. Entrance into fatherhood is associated with an increase in BMI trajectory for both nonresident and resident fathers, while nonfathers exhibit a decrease over the same period. In this longitudinal, population-based study, fatherhood and residence status play a role in men's BMI. Designing obesity prevention interventions for young men that begin in adolescence and carry through young adulthood should target the distinctive needs of these populations, potentially improving their health outcomes.

Disagreement in Parental Reports of Father Involvement.

Despite agreement on the value of father involvement in children's lives, research has been limited due to the exclusion of fathers in studies, questionable validity of mothers' reports on father involvement, and simple measures of fathering behavior. Our study extends previous research by comparing reports of father involvement using robust, multidimensional father involvement measures. Data from 113 fathers and 126 mothers reporting on 221 children were used to assess father involvement. Results indicate that fathers reported significantly higher levels of involvement than mothers reported. Findings from hierarchical linear models suggest that race/ethnicity and mothers' reports of positive relationship quality were associated with smaller discrepancies in reports of father involvement, whereas nonmarried partnerships, older children, father residence, and biological status predicted larger discrepancies. Our study demonstrates the importance of obtaining father involvement reports directly from fathers and why father involvement should be assessed as a multidimensional construct to examine fathering behavior.

Maternal Kinship Involvement and Father Identity in Fragile Families

Research has shown that nonresident versus resident fathers are less involved with their biological children and involvement may be a function of father identity. Research also has shown that maternal kin play a central caregiving role in families. This paper examines the extent to which maternal family involvement is associated with father identity. Data from the Fragile Families and Child Wellbeing Study (N = 1836) showed that, net of a number of confounding factors, maternal family involvement was associated negatively with father identity, although nonresident fathers were significantly likely to feel less good about themselves as fathers regardless of maternal family involvement. Overall, results suggested that the extended family context in which parents (of young children) are embedded may contribute to how men identify as fathers.

The influence of potentially traumatic household characteristics on blunt use among Black youth

ABSTRACTThe residential status of mothers and fathers in the household has been shown to influence drug use and other health outcomes among adolescents. However, no studies have examined if these household characteristics influence blunt use (marijuana mixed with or replacing tobacco in cigar paper), specifically among Black adolescents. Using data from the 2012 National Survey on Drug Use and Health, this study was designed to examine the relationship between household characteristics (non-residential mother vs. residential mother and non-residential father vs. residential father) and blunt use among Black male and female adolescents. Findings revealed that Black males with non-residential fathers were more likely to have smoked blunts in their lifetime than Black males with residential fathers, illustrating the importance of fathers in the lives of Black males.