Indian Reservoirs Research Articles

A new case of reservoir triggered seismicity: Govind Ballav Pant reservoir (Rihand dam), central India

We report here that seismicity near Govind Ballav Pant reservoir is strongly influenced by the reservoir operations. It is the second largest reservoir in India, which is built on Rihand river in the failed rift region of central India. Most of the earthquakes occurred during the high water stand in the reservoir with a time lag of about 1 month. We use the concept of coulomb stress change and use Green's function based approach to estimate stresses and pore pressure due to the reservoir load. We find that the reservoir increases coulomb stress on the nearby faults of the region that are favourably oriented for failure in predominantly reverse slip manner under the NNE–SSW compression and thus promotes failure. The above two factors make it an obvious, yet so far unreported case of reservoir triggered seismicity.

Assessment of sedimentation in harakud reservoir using digital remote sensing technique

As per recommendations of Working Group for National Action for Reservoir Sedimentation Assessment, National Institute of Hydrology has taken up study on sedimentation for 25 reservoirs in India during X plan period using remote sensing technique. One such study for Hirakud reservoir in Mahanadi basin in Orissa for year 1999–2001 is described here. Reservoir’s original utilizable and gross volumes were 5818 and 8136 M m3, respectively. Minimum draw down level (MDDL) and full reservoir level (FRL) for reservoir are 179.83 and 192.02 m, respectively. Linear Imaging Self Scanning (LISS)- III data of Indian Remote Sensing Satellites (IRS) 1C and 1D, covering elevation range between 180.68 and 191.89 m, were used. Rule based classification was applied to ‘water index’ and radiances of near infrared band to determine water spread area. Revised live storage capacity was 4842 M m3. The silt index for the live storage area was 2.623 ha m (100 km2 year)-1 (0.376 % of live storage or 21.9 M m3 year-1). Total live storage lost in sedimentation was 984 M m3 (16.90 % of live storage).

Threatened Fishes of the World: Tor tor Hamilton 1822 (Cyprinidae)

Common names: Mahseer, Mohashol, there are many different names in various parts of India. Conservation status: Vulnerable and threatened (Ameen et al. 2000). Importance: T. tor is an economically valuable species and a very important recreational angling fish on the Indian subcontinent including Nepal, Sri Lanka and Turkey. It forms an important part of reservoir fisheries in India and the coldwater fisheries along the Himalayas. It is a potential candidate for the development of an openwater fishery as well as aquaculture. T. tor is the most common Himalayan mahseer and a very attractive sportfish, with excellent food value. Identification: D 12 (3/9), P 19, V 9, A 7–8 (2–3/5), C 19, L 1.22–27, Ltr 4/2. Head slightly shorter than depth, dorsal profile more sharply arched than ventral profile, lips thick fleshy with continuous labial fold across the lower jaw, mouth is small and its gape does not extend below the eyes, snout pointed, jaws of about the same length, two pairs of barbels, maxillary ones slightly longer than rostral ones but shorter than eye, interorbital space flat. Dorsal fin opposite to or slightly in advance of ventral fin, dorsal spine smooth, shorter than body depth, pectoral reaching pelvic as long as head excluding snout, pelvic shorter and when laid flat not reaching caudal-fin base, caudal deeply forked and lateral line complete. Predorsal scales 9. There is a well-developed scaly appendage in the axil of each pelvic fin. The length of head 4 and depth of body 3–3.7-times SL. Silvery green or greyish green dorsally, with pinkish sides replaced by greenish gold above and light olive green below, lower fin reddish yellow. Maximum size 152.0 cm. Distribution: Subtropical (15–30 C), 29 N–20 N, it is distributed in Asia where it is a popular sport fish in India, Pakistan, Bangladesh and Nepal. It has also been reported from Sri Lanka, Afganistan, Mayanmar, Turkey, Bhutan, China and Papua New Guinea. It occurs in large rivers, lakes and reservoirs. Abundance: No recent estimate is available. Desai (2003) reported a steady decline in abundance in reservoirs in India. Habitat and ecology: Inhabits riverine pools and lakes and also in streams with good flows and a rocky bottom where they attain the best growth. They are benthopelagic, potamodromous and occur in tropical freshwaters (15–30 C) at depths of up to 15 m. Adults have an omnivorous diet and feed on small fish, insects, molluscs, zooplankton, debris, sand & mud, fish scales & bones, fruits, chironomid larvae, water beetles, crustaceans, filamentous algae and macrophytes. Juveniles mainly consume insects. Reproduction and spawning: Size at maturity ranges from 28–50 cm for males and 34–38 cm for females. They exhibit sexual dimorphism. T. tor migrate towards headwaters at the start of the rainy season (June–August) to breed over gravel and stone beds and move downstream at the end of the rainy season to perennial wetlands. Monsoon floods and physico-chemical factors induce mahseers to migrate to their spawning grounds and act as the triggers for reproduction. They can spawn from March to September (Shrestha 1999) when water temperature is 20.0–28.0 C with a high dissolved oxygen content (>9.5 mgl). Eggs are released on a gravel substratum in rivers. Fecundity ranges between 10,000 and 100,000 depending on fish size. Hatching takes 60–80 hours after being incubated at 19.5–20.4 C. Although different mating behavior is recorded in other mahseer species, only a long courtship is reported for T. tor (Desai 2003). Threats: Populations in open waterbodies (rivers/lakes) are decreasing due to various forms of human impacts such as high fishing pressure, loss of habitats resulting from river damming for hydroelectricity and other developmental works, natural disasters, pollution and reclamation of wetlands. Fishermen harvest T. tor during the critical migration period. Conservation action: Artificial propagation has been successfully done in Bangladesh and India and domestication is under trial (Desai 2003). Many aquaculture trials have shown that this species is a promising candidate for coldwater aquaculture. Openwater ranching and stock enhancement with artificially reared fish is under experimental trial in Nepal and India (Petr & Swar 2002). Conservation recommendation: There is an urgent need for surveys on the abundance, distribution and ecological requirements over the natural range of this species. It is necessary to identify why this species is declining in numbers and measures should be taken to conserve the ecological conditions of the rivers where this fish still occurs. Extensive studies should be done on different aspects of domestication, artificial propagation, and rearing of the fish. Finally, augmentation of the natural stock should be done through habitat improvement and stock enhancement and ranching.

Impact of Juvenile Stocking Size on the Major Carp Production in a Minor Reservoir, Bibinagar, India

The present study deals with the impact of juvenile stocking sizes of the major carp on production in a minor reservoir, Bibinagar, Nalgonda, India. Reservoir surface area equaled over 23.8 ha and water from the reservoir was used for irrigation and fisheries. Four experiments were conducted for 4 years from 2000–2001 to 2003–2004. The experiments were planned in such a way that every year juvenile stocking size was held constant and subsequent fish production analyzed. During the first year’s experiment (2000–2001) a stocking size of 25–30 mm (fry) was maintained. Similarly 50–55 (advanced fry), 75–80 mm (fingerling) and 100–105 mm (advanced fingerling) were stocked during 2001–2002, 2002–2003 and 2003–2004 respectively. Uniform yearly stocking densities (2000/ha) were established in each experiment in the month of July and fish were harvested in June of the subsequent year. Major carp production was enhanced with larger stocking size. Yearly productions equaled 144.00, 231.48, 632.91 and 1005.03 kg/ha/year with the above stocking sizes. Variation in stocking sizes had significant (P<0.05) effects on fish production. The number of fish per kg production decreased gradually with increases in stocking size with an average value of 3.97. Reservoir production of catla was the most abundant species, followed by rohu, common carp, mrigal and grass carp. These results show that stocking size has a great impact on fish production and the stocking of advanced fingerlings will provide maximum carp production in minor reservoirs in India.

Impact of stocking on yield in small reservoirs in Andhra Pradesh, India

AbstractThe relationships between surface area, stocking density and fish yield in 40 small reservoirs in India between 1994 and 1999 were examined. A significant positive correlation (r = 0.6) was found between stocking density and fish yield. Area was negatively correlated with stocking density (r = −0.57) and fish yield (r = −0.62), but its correlation with efficiency of stocking was not significant for all the size groups of small reservoirs.

A suite of multi-segment fugacity models describing the fate of organic contaminants in aquatic systems: application to the Rihand Reservoir, India

The fugacity-based quantitative water–air–sediment interaction (QWASI) model is described which can be used to establish a mass balance for an organic or metallic contaminant in a lake ecosystem consisting of water, suspended matter, bottom sediments and the atmosphere. A suite of such models is described and discussed with various degrees of complexity including versions treating equilibrium and non-equilibrium situations, steady-state and dynamic conditions with either single or multiple segments. It is suggested that when seeking to apply a mass balance model to a specific lake and contaminant situation, it is desirable to start with a simple model and increase the complexity as circumstances dictate. This approach is illustrated by application of QWASI models to the Rihand Reservoir in India for lindane and benzo(a)pyrene. The roles are discussed by which such models can contribute to improved management of chemicals that may adversely affect aquatic systems, especially in developing regions.

Geochemical tracing of Pacific-to-Atlantic upper-mantle flow through the Drake passage.

The Earth's convecting upper mantle can be viewed as comprising three main reservoirs, beneath the Pacific, Atlantic and Indian oceans. Because of the uneven global distribution and migration of ridges and subduction zones, the surface area of the Pacific reservoir is at present contracting at about 0.6 km2 x y(r-1), while the Atlantic and Indian reservoirs are growing at about 0.45 km2 x yr(-1) and 0.15 km2 x yr(-1), respectively. Garfunkel and others have argued that there must accordingly be net mantle flow from the Pacific to the Atlantic and Indian reservoirs (in order to maintain mass balance), and Alvarez further predicted that this flow should be restricted to the few parts of the Pacific rim (here termed 'gateways') where there are no continental roots or subduction zones that might act as barriers to shallow mantle flow. The main Pacific gateways are, according to Alvarez, the southeast Indian Ocean, the Caribbean Sea and the Drake passage. Here we report geochemical data which confirm that there has been some outflow of Pacific mantle into the Drake passage--but probably in response to regional tectonic constraints, rather than global mass-balance requirements. We also show that a mantle domain boundary, equivalent to the Australian-Antarctic discordance, must lie between the Drake passage and the east Scotia Sea.

Hydrogeological and hydrochemical framework of regional aquifer system in Kali-Ganga sub-basin, India

The central Ganga Basin is one of the major groundwater reservoirs in India. The Kali-Ganga sub-basin is a micro watershed of the central Ganga Basin, containing a number of productive aquifers. A detailed hydrogeological investigation was carried out, which reveals the occurrence of a single-tier aquifer system down to 163 m bgl (metres below ground level), but at places it is interleaved with clay layers; thus imparting it a two-to three-tier aquifer system. These aquifers are unconfined to confined in disposition. The transmissivity, storage coefficient and hydraulic conductivity are determined as 2178 m2/day, 1.12×10–5 and 120 m/day, respectively. The groundwater of the basin is fresh, of an alkali-bicarbonate type and is suitable for irrigation and domestic use. However, in certain areas, extensive agricultural activities, and domestic and industrial effluents have caused some deterioration of groundwater quality. This study contains data of where the concentration of Fe, Pb, Cd, Cr and Ni are higher than the permissible limits, which may be hazardous to public health.

Ecology and fishery management of reservoirs in India

India has 19 370 small reservoirs with a total water surface area of 3 153 366 ha. At least 100 of them have been subjected to scientific studies. Habitat variables responsible for a reservoir's productivity can be summed up into climatic, morphometric and hydro-edaphic factors. The peninsular reservoirs are characterized by a narrow range of fluctuations in water and air temperature across seasons, a phenomenon which prevents the formation of thermal stratification. Many reservoirs in the upper peninsula show thermal stratification during summer. Wind-induced turbulence facilitates the return of nutrients to the trophogenic zone. Most reservoirs on the mountain slopes of Western Ghats, Himalayas and the other highlands are deeper, with steeper basin walls, compared to irrigation impoundments. Mean depth does not show any direct correlation with productivity, either at primary or fish level. A high shoreline development index gives a better indication of productivity. Plankton, benthos and periphyton pulses of Indian reservoirs coincide with the months of least level fluctuations. Oligotrophic tendencies shown by some reservoirs are mainly due to poor nutrient status and other chemical deficiencies. In most cases, poor water quality is accountable to poor catchment soil. Low levels of phosphate and nitrate are not indicative of low productivity due to quick recycling of these nutrients. Specific conductivity reflects the production propensities of reservoirs satisfactorily. Almost all productive reservoirs have a klinograde oxygen curve and a vertical stratification of chemical variables such as pH, carbon dioxide, total alkalinity and specific conductivity. High seasonal rainfall and discharge of water during monsoon result in high flushing rates, which do not favour colonization by macrophytic communities. Similarly, inadequate availability of suitable substrata retards the growth of periphyton. Plankton constitutes the major link in the trophic structure. A rich plankton community with well-marked succession is the hallmark of Indian reservoirs with blue-green algae as the major component. The main factors that retard the growth of benthos are a rocky bottom, frequent water level fluctuation and rapid deposition of silt and other suspended particles. Large reservoirs, on average, harbour 60 species of fishes, of which at least 40 contribute to the commercial fisheries. Fast-growing Indian major carps are the prominent commercial fishes. Dam construction has adversely affected populations of many other species such as Tenualosa ilisha, Torspp. and Cirrhinus spp. Formulae for estimating fish yield potential and stocking density are described. While culture-based fisheries have been successfully practiced in many small reservoirs, the management norm followed in medium and large reservoirs is primarily on capture fishery. In large and medium reservoirs, stocking was successful only when stocked fishes bred. Indian experience on species enhancement and introductions is described. Environmental enhancement of small reservoirs has been attempted in some reservoirs of Tamil Nadu. Modeling, using standard population parameters, such as the density-dependent growth, size dependent mortalityand weight–length relationshipis discussed. Two exotic fishes viz., Oreochromis mossambicus and Cyprinus carpio have been introduced into Indian reservoir with discouraging results. Hypophthalmichthys molitrix, after an accidental introduction, has performed well in Gobindsagar, a reservoir with a distinct cold water regime. Reservoir fisheries in India are well poised for development, provided scientific management norms are adopted.

Real‐time reservoir operation for irrigation

A short‐term real‐time reservoir operation model is developed for irrigation of multiple crops. Two major features of the model distinguish it from the earlier models which address the problem of reservoir operation for irrigation: its capability to consider interdependence of crop water allocations across time periods and its ability to provide an adaptive release policy. Integration of reservoir operation with on‐farm utilization of water by crops is achieved through the use of two models: An operating policy model, which optimizes reservoir releases across time periods in a year, and an allocation model, which optimizes irrigation allocations across crops within a time period. The model is applied to a case study of an existing reservoir in India.

Environmental stress in Pandoh Reservoir India, renders snowtrout unpalatable

Summary The thermo-a/titudina/ migration ofSchizothorax richardsonii (Gray), the snowtrout, downstream during the winter months in search of favourable habitats, is now obstructed by the Pandoh Dam, situated on the River Beas in Himachal Pradesh. In search of periphyton, the fish is forced to feed upon the bottom mud and sand of the reservoir. The unusual food intake adversely effects the palatability of the fish, its flesh loses taste and emits a foul odour.

Multiobjective Analysis of Multireservoir System

The explicit consideration of multiple objectives in decision making is becoming increasingly important in water resources systems analysis. Conflicting objectives like irrigation, flood control, hydropower production, and environmental preservation are inevitable while deriving the operating alternatives in an efficient way for any complex water resources system. In this paper, a linear multiobjective programming model has been developed and the constraint technique was used to derive the optimal releases for various purposes from a large‐scale multireservoir system consisting of five reservoirs in India. Maximization of irrigation releases and maximization of hydropower production have been considered as the twin objectives in the model subjected to constraints on physical limitations, environmental restrictions, and storage continuity. This model was applied to three series of inflow sequences representing the normal, drought, and excess‐flow conditions. The tradeoff analysis between the conflicting objectives of irrigation and hydropower production was also carried out and the transformation curve was plotted. The optimal point on this curve gives the best combination of the twin objectives considered in the model.

Optimal reservoir operation for irrigation of multiple crops

A model for the optimal operating policy of a reservoir for irrigation under a multiple crops scenario using stochastic dynamic programming (SDP) is developed. Intraseasonal periods smaller than the crop growth stage durations form the decision intervals of the model to facilitate irrigation decisions in real situations. Reservoir storage, inflow to the reservoir, and the soil moisture in the irrigated area are treated as state variables. An optimal allocation process is incorporated in the model to determine the allocations to individual crops when a competition for water exists among them. The model also serves as an irrigation scheduling model in that at any given intraseason period it specifies whether irrigation is needed and, if it is, the amount of irrigation to be applied to each crop. The impact on crop yield due to water deficit and the effect of soil moisture dynamics on crop water requirements are taken into account. A linear root growth of the crop is assumed until the end of the vegetative stage, beyond which the root depth is assumed to be constant. The applicability of the model is demonstrated through a case study of an existing reservoir in India.

Computerized Texture Analysis of Borehole Electrical Images from Middle East Carbonate Reservoirs: A Contribution to Porosity Characterization

Porosity heterogeneities have been found to be common in carbonate reservoirs and are a major factor affecting fluid flow and recovery efficiency. A review of Middle East and Indian reservoirs reveals that there are four types of heterogeneous fabrics: layered porosity, interwoven porosity, isolated porosity, and isolated nonporous within reservoir zones. Their presence can adversely affect the interpretation, testing, and completion of a well. Electrical imagery is a key to defining the spatial arrangement and orientation of the porosity distribution, or porosity fabric. To assist in the interpretation and quantification of heterogeneous porosity, specialized image analysis techniques have been developed. Although mathematical morphology concepts developed for medical imagery are used, geological imagery has necessitated the development of some original approaches. The initial focus of the computer image analysis is of isolated porosity and also thin porosity layers alternating with nonporous carbonate rock. The 'porosity typing' summary log of the textural analysis of reservoir porosity has a variety of applications, but it is an immediate input for well testing and well completion design. Moreover, as carbonate image fabrics are generally related to depositional and or diagenetic facies, a fabric summary and zonation is also valuable for well-to-well correlation in either reservoirmore » or exploration studies.« less

Sedimentation of reservoirs in India

The sedimentation of Indian reservoirs has become a serious problem due to the synergistic action of population growth, intensity of agricultural operations, poor soil conservation and deforestation. This article examines the reasons for and responses to, sedimentation in three Indian reservoirs — Nizamsagar, Tungabhadra and Sriramsagar. The land management practices adopted in each case are analysed with reference to current and future needs. The article highlights particularly the need to monitor methodically the land use changes in the catchments of reservoirs.

Reservoir Sedimentation in India—Its Causes, Control, and Future Course of Action

ABSTRACT A survey of Indian reservoirs has shown that they receive on an average about 200 percent more sediment than the design inflow. The causes are the usual, except that they are operating very intensely. In brief ‘misuse and mismanagement’ of the catchment area will describe the causes of higher rates of sedimentation. Fortunately India is very much aware of this problem and a lot is being done by identifying the priority areas for treatment and implementation of programmes to reduce soil erosion and sediment generation. While techniques and efficacy of various biological and structural control measures are well known, it is the policy and planning aspects which need greater attention at present. Some of them are: —It is important that policy and planning should aim at developing the catchment area, reservoir and command area as a package. —In the developing world sediment is the greatest pollutant and it must be recognised and treated as such. —A policy for effective water resource and hydropower development, watershed and command area development must take into account the short term and long term, direct and indirect, private and social benefits, and endeavour to involve the people and the employees in such a way that they feel committed to efficient and effective implementation.

Siltation in Nizamsagar reservoir: environmental management issues

The Nizamsagar is one of the most heavily silted Indian reservoirs, with a 60 per cent reduction in its storage capacity in just 40 years. At the present rate of siltation, the entire original storage capacity will have silted up in 70 years. The problem of siltation has a multitude of economic and environmental implications. The environmental management issues involved in the siltation of the Nizamsagar are identified and analysed in detail in this paper. Regular monitoring of siltation and the taking of timely corrective action would have reduced the extent of damage by siltation.

Case histories of some artificial crustal disturbances

The Shivajisagar lake area of the Koyna Hydroelectric Project, situated in the Deccan Trap region of the aseismic Indian Shield began to exhibit mild seismicity immediately after the impounding of the reservoir in 1963. This mild seismicity culminated in a major earthquake of magnitude 7.0 on December 10, 1967, followed by numerous aftershocks of diminishing magnitude and frequency, obeying a relationship of the type t − b . It has been observed that a significant part of these earthquakes, especially the aftershocks, was found to be correlated with reservoir water load. In the case of a few new water reservoirs in India, situated mostly in marginal areas of the aseismic Indian Shield, very minor seismic activity, though of an isolated nature, was recently noticed after impounding. On the other hand, very large reservoirs situated well inside the stable Indian Shield, did not exhibit any noticeable seismic activity after impounding. Studies with an ultra-high-sensitivity seismograph (magnification∼ 10 6) near a newly impounded reservoir in the Deccan Trap reveal evidence of the occurrence of minute tremors of magnitude below zero. Thus, the geographical distribution of the above water reservoirs exhibiting seismic activity implies the probable influence of a geotectonic pattern in the process.

Sedimentation of Reservoirs

It is well known that the useful life of reservoirs intended for irrigation, flood control and hydraulic developments is reduced by deposition of suspended sediment, bedload and bed material brought down by the rivers. In India the quantity of sediment deposit in reservoirs is generally assumed from the sediment observations carried out on the rivers in the planning stage. Broad aspects of sedimentation commonly used for prediction of the life of reservoirs have been dealt with. The method of determination of rate of sedimentation adopted by the Central Soil Mechanics Research Station, Central Water and Power Commission, has been described giving the technique of estimation of suspended sediment adopted in India. Also the role played by the bedload and unit weight of sediment is given along with the method of computation of sedimentation of reservoirs. The observed rate of sedimentation of reservoirs in India particularly of Bhakra, Maithon, Panchet, Hirakud, Mayrakshi, and Krishnarajasagar has been compared by actual sedimentation surveys carried out recently on each of them.