Reserve Power Source Research Articles

Real-time hardware-in-loop system based validation of vehicle-grid interface for bidirectional power flow control

In the context of modern sustainable transportation technology, the terms Vehicle-to-Grid (V2G) and Grid-to-Vehicle (G2V) holds significant value. During V2G and G2V modes, vehicle and grid exchange power using various power converters to modulate the power for a sustainable electrical energy ecosystem. With V2G, the EVs can also perform the role of a peak power contributor, reserve power source, and an efficient system to improve power quality issues by working as power factor corrector, reactive power compensator, and active power filter, to name a few during the V2G mode. The on-board power converter in the vehicle, working as the charger for the battery, is the component required to facilitate the intended bidirectional power exchange between the vehicle and grid and also modulates the power as and when required. The modality for operating the onboard charger as a power exchange tool depends on the type of control strategy adopted as well as on the battery and grid parameters. In this paper, a bidirectional power converter (on-board converter) is introduced, which is controlled by adopting a d-q axis-based control strategy. The MATLAB/SIMULINK-based system simulation model is created, and the Hardware-in-Loop (HIL) tool Opal-RT 4510 is used to validate the simulation results on the intended hardware and real-time scenario. The control strategy, when integrated with the adopted model, contributes to enhancing the power-transferring capability of the converter, which is assessed using the simulation and subsequent HIL-based implementation. The paper also focuses on narrating the steps to implement the vehicle-grid interface using HIL and forming a generic reference model for a bidirectional power flow converter, such that it can be used for other circuits and its implementation in real-time scenarios.

Fast-activating reserve power sources: is lead dead indeed?

The purpose of this research is to improve the performance and reduce the activation time of reserve power sources based on lead-acid systems at lower temperatures, down to –50 °C. Physico-chemical factors affecting the activation speed of reserve power sources based on Pb–HClO4–PbO2 and Zn–HClO4–PbO2 systems are investigated using chronopotentiometry, scanning electron microscopy, and standard contact porosimetry. Two approaches to the improvement of the low-temperature performance of power sources are used. The first one is based on the substitution of lead as anodic material with zinc. This allows the increase in discharge voltage and simultaneous decrease in activation time, but brings about the instability of discharge characteristics and, finally, deteriorates the reliability of power sources. The second approach is based on the use of PbO2 cathode material with enhanced nanoporosity. The chronopotentiometric method in galvanostatic mode is applied to the quality estimation of cathodes. The criterion of applicability of cathodes for reserve power sources consists in the low discharge overvoltage (0.1–0.2 V). Efficient performance of reserve power sources possessing the stable discharge voltage (1.5–1.8 V per cell) and the unprecedentedly short activation time (under 30 ms) even at lower temperatures (down to –50 °C) is achieved. The results are verified by fabrication and testing of pilot batches of miniaturized reserve power sources having microcells’ volume of 0.02 ml. The second approach to the improvement of power sources is transferred into the industrial production.

Advances of LiCoO2 in Cathode of Aqueous Lithium-Ion Batteries.

Aqueous lithium-ion batteries offer promising advantages such as low cost, enhanced safety, high rate capability, and the ability to deliver considerable capacity at 1.8V, making them ideal candidates for large-scale reserve power sources for renewable energy. However, the practical application of aqueous lithium-ion batteries has been hindered by the poor cycle stability of layered cathode materials, including LiCoO2, in neutral aqueous electrolytes. This review examines the working principles, material limitations, and research progress of aqueous lithium-ion batteries. The types and characteristics of materials used in the cathode of aqueous lithium-ion batteries are summarized, with a primary focus on the attenuation mechanisms of LiCoO2 when used as the cathode material in aqueous electrolytes. Furthermore, this review explores the advancements in utilizing LiCoO2 in the cathode of aqueous lithium-ion batteries, as well as the combination with machine learning. By addressing these critical aspects, this review aims to provide a comprehensive understanding of aqueous lithium-ion batteries and shed light on future development and application prospects.

Investigation of Physicochemical Characteristics of Lead Dioxide Coatings to Enhance the Performance of Reserve Quickly Activated Chemical Power Sources in the Lead–Perchloric Acid–Lead Dioxide System

The relationship between the discharge characteristics of reserve chemical power sources of the lead–perchloric acid–lead dioxide system and the physicochemical properties of electroplated cathode coatings with lead dioxide, including phase composition and microstructure, has been studied. The study reveals that the discharge characteristics of power sources can be enhanced by employing a two-layer lead dioxide coating consisting of a porous outer layer and a denser inner layer. The findings have been validated through the production and testing of industrial prototypes of pilot miniature reserve power sources, which exhibit improved performance even at low temperatures (activation time, less than 30 ms; discharge capacity, ~200 mA min/cm2; discharge voltage per cell, 1.8–1.2 V at –50°C).

INFLUENCE OF THE POSITIVE ELECTRODE PROPERTIES ON THE ACTIVATION TIME OF THE RESERVE CHEMICAL POWER SOURCES OF THE SYSTEM LEAD – PERCHLORIC ACID – LEAD DIOXIDE

The influence of the positive electrode properties on the activation time of the reserve chemical power sources of the system lead – perchloric acid – lead dioxide has been studied. Coatings of cathodes with lead dioxide obtained under various conditions are characterized by scanning electron spectroscopy, X-ray spectral microanalysis, X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy, standard contact porosimetry. The improvement of the performance characteristics of power sources including the ensuring of a short time of their activation at a low temperature has been shown to be possible with the use of a nanoporous coating of lead dioxide. To estimate the applicability of cathodes for the manufacture of power sources having minimal activation time a diagnostic principle has been used that it based on testing of cathodes by the method of chronopotentiometric measurements during galvanostatic discharge. Pilot industrial samples of small-sized reserve power sources of the mentioned electrochemical system with unprecedented short activation time (less than 30 ms at temperarure –50°С) were manufactured and tested.

A clutch with dual accumulators as a reserve power source

Wydawnictwo SIGMA-NOT wydaje czasopisma fachowe informujące swoich czytelników o najnowszych osiągnięciach naukowych i nowoczesnych rozwiązaniach technicznych w Polsce i na świecie, popularyzuje problemy techniczne oraz poszerza wiedzę i kulturę techniczną.

Low-head hydropower as a reserve power source: A case study of Northeastern Illinois

Wind power generation faces intermittency challenges, typically requiring reserve power sources to maintain reliability of the electricity grid. This study proposes that hydropower turbines installed at low-head dams can provide reserve power generation to support wind power, avoiding the externalities associated with fossil-fuel plants and conventional hydropower. Low-head dams in the United States are used for flood control, securing municipal water supplies, and providing reservoir pools for recreation. As a case study, we estimated hydropower potential at 12 low-head dams along a 150-km reach of the Fox River (Northeastern Illinois, USA) using a calibrated river flow model. We analyzed the model's output to assess power generation capacity and reliability as a source of baseload power and as a component in a coupled wind-hydropower system. The modeled system performed reliably over a five-year time period despite significant long-term fluctuations in streamflow, offsetting the short-term variability of wind power. However, combining the low-head hydropower system with wind power limited the output of the system to the minimum generated by the low-head hydropower. The low-head hydropower system's small capacity and high break-even price suggest that it is better suited for local applications rather than grid-scale operations, especially if permitting regulations are considered.

Nanostructuring of Iron Disulfide Cathode Materials for Enhanced Thermal Batteries

For the U.S. Department of Defense, high-performance power sources are a critical technology for current and future gun-fired munitions. Molten salt thermal batteries are the reserve power source of choice for many weapon systems due to their high power density, proven long shelf life, and capability to function across a wide range of operating environments. The incorporation of nanomaterials into thermal battery components offers the potential to produce batteries with performance improvements, such as higher voltages at increased current densities. In this study, nanoscale iron disulfide (FeS2) was synthesized using a fully scalable, high energy milling method, and characterized utilizing SEM, XRD, ICP-OES, BET surface area analysis, TGA-DSC, and other techniques. Nanostructured cathode mixtures containing the nanoscale FeS2 and LiCl-KCl eutectic salt electrolyte were pressed into electrode pellets. Their electrochemical performance was then characterized as compared to standard FeS2 cathode electrode pellets currently used in industry. Single cell thermal battery discharge testing, polarization type scans, and pulse load capability were used to compare cell performance for better understanding of best-use applications for these materials. Compared to control cells, the cells utilizing nanostructured cathodes provided higher power response, with respect to both voltage and runtime.

Hybrid electric topology for short sea ships with high auxiliary power availability requirement

The inclusion of a battery system for a diesel mechanical short sea ship was investigated. The main benefits of the battery were assumed to emerge from shaving thruster generated power peaks, rather than starting additional generating sets to accommodate the power demand and additionally from replacing a diesel engine as a reserve power source. To support the analysis, an auxiliary engine power output dataset of a roll-on/roll-off passenger ferry operating in the Baltic Sea was acquired. Required capacity for the battery system was derived by considering power availability requirements and battery safety margins for performance deterioration. A multi-period mixed-integer linear programming model was developed to derive a globally optimal power management strategy for the auxiliary engines and the battery, with the goal of minimizing the battery installation total cost. The battery system was found to reduce fuel oil consumption by 257.5 tons annually due to improved auxiliary engine efficiency alone. Furthermore, the battery system total cost advantage was found to vary from -€0.61 to €2.82 million during the ten-year investment period, depending on fuel oil and battery system costs applied in the modeling. For the studied case ship, the hybrid electric topology was concluded to be economically feasible.

Modeling of the operation of the reserve source of electric energy of railway traffic control devices

The article presents issues related to the problem of modeling the work of a reserve source of electric energy for railway traffic control devices. The problems of srk devices and the construction and concept of powering them into electricity were outlined. The basic part presents a simulation model of the operation of a generator set, used as a reserve power source. Modifications of the model to work in the most important operating conditions are shown. The results of simulation calculations are presented.

Multiobjective Generation Portfolio of Hybrid Energy Generating Station for Mobile Emergency Power Supplies

This paper proposes a mixed generation portfolio model of hybrid energy generating station (HEGS) for standby emergency power supply (EPS). The HEGS functions as a mobile and transportable reserve power source for critical loads in case of electricity outages. In the proposed model, various renewable and non-renewable energy sources with different mobility, energy density, and power density characteristics are integrated to form a sufficient and reliable hybrid energy EPS system, and the uncertainties of demand load, wind speed, solar radiation intensity, as well as solar cell temperature are modeled as interval numbers to formulate the optimal sizing problem of HEGS under uncertainty into a deterministic combinatorial optimization model. Furthermore, the multiobjective generation portfolio model of EPS configuration is also designed to generate Pareto frontier between implementation cost reduction and mobility improvement. Four generic evaluation metrics are formulated to evaluate the resulting generation-mix schemes of HEGS with case study demonstrated the effectiveness and superiority of the proposed model.

Cost metrics of electrical energy storage technologies in potential power system operations

Modern power systems could not exist without the many forms of electricity storage that can be integrated at different levels of the power chain. In this work, the most important applications in which storage provides technical, economic and environmental benefits such as arbitrage, balancing and reserve power sources, voltage and frequency regulation, investment deferral, cost management and load shaping and leveling, are reviewed. Using a 5-function normalization technique the technical and operational characteristics relating to 18 electrical energy storage (EES) technologies are qualitatively assessed and the technology-application pairs identified across the power chain are presented. In particular, two functions were used to normalize the characteristics expressed in real units, two further functions were used for those in percentage values and one function was used to quantify the technical maturity. For large-scale/energy-management applications pumped hydro is the most reliable energy storage option over compressed-air alternatives whereas flywheel and electromagnetic EES devices are still focused on short-duration/power-based applications including frequency regulation, uninterruptible power supply, spinning reserve, etc. Encouraged by the appropriate market and regulatory structures, economics enable storing bulk electricity produced by intermittent sources connected to the grid, rather than using it at once. In medium-to-large scales advanced Pb-acid and molten-salt batteries are considered capable of storing distributed electricity, providing the advantage of load leveling of both the supply network and generation plant. In terms of safety and simplicity, Pb-acid and Li-ion systems are viable options for small-scale residential applications, giving consumers an incentive to reduce their time-of-use charges. Apart from their expected use in transportation sector in the forthcoming years, regenerative fuel cells and flow batteries may offer intriguing potential in stationary applications once mature to commercialization.

Study of Operating Characteristics of Pyrotechnic Reserve Power Source Based on Magnesium and Zinс

This paper presents the results of studies of operating parameters of pyrotechnic reserve power source (PRPS). This battery was activated by the pyrotechnic compositions contained in the electrodes. Once the ignition impulse worked, the pyrotechnic compositions took fire immediately and melted the electrolyte. Then the rest pyrotechnic compositions served as anode and cathode. The battery began to discharge. The following characteristics of PRPS were evaluated during the study: release time to operating regime of the electric current, the duration of the PRPS work and initiation temperature of PRPS. A detailed evaluation of the Mg/LiF/PbF2 electrochemical system and Zn/LiF/PbF2 one is undertaken. Test results show that the electric current value using powder of zinc and granular zinc in these experiments was 0.179 A and 0.1 A, respectively, and the operating time at these values of elecrtic current was 40 and 151 sec, respectively.

Development and study of aluminum-air electrochemical generator and its main components

Abstract Aluminum-air power sources are receiving increased attention for applications in portable electronic devices, transportation, and energy systems. This study reports on the development of an aluminum-air electrochemical generator (AA ECG) and provides a technical foundation for the selection of its components, i.e., aluminum anode, gas diffusion cathode, and alkaline electrolyte. A prototype 1.5 kW AA ECG with specific energy of 270 Wh kg −1 is built and tested. The results of this study demonstrate the feasibility of AA ECGs as portable reserve and emergency power sources, as well as power sources for electric vehicles.

Experimental prototype of an electric elevator

The main objective is to achieve an elevator prototype powered by a three-phase voltage system via a bidirectional static power converter ac-ac with regenerating capability. In order to diminish the power size of the electric motor up to 1/3 of rated power, the elevator contains two carriages of the same weight, one serving as the payload, and the other as counterweight. Before proper operation of the static power converter, the capacitor must be charged at rated voltage via a precharge circuit. At the moment of stabilizing the DC voltage at nominal value, the AC-AC power converter can operates in the proper limits. The functions of the control structure are: the load control task, speed and torque controls. System includes transducers for current measuring, voltage sensors and encoder. As reserve power sources the hybrid battery-photovoltaic panels are used. The control voltage is modulated by implementing four types of pulse width modulations: sinusoidal, with reduced commutation, third order harmonic insertion, and the space vector modulation. Therefore, the prototype could operates with an increased efficiency, in spite of the existing ones. The experimental results confirm the well design of the chosen solution. The control solution assures bidirectional power flow control, precharge control, and load control and it is implemented on a digital signal processor. The elevator capacity is between 300-450 kg, and it is driven by using a 1.5 kW three-phase asynchronous machine.

열전지 기술 현황과 전극재료 개발 동향

Thermal batteries are heat-activated primary reserve power sources that use inorganic salt as electrolytes and specially designed to meet extremely long or environmentally severe storage requirements. They are primarily used to deliver high power for relatively short periods in such applications as fuzes, missiles, ordnance and other military applications. In this paper, we describe a general overview and research trends on electrode materials for thermal batteries.

‘Reserving judgement’: Perceptions of pumped hydro and utility-scale batteries for electricity storage and reserve generation in New Zealand

Renewable electricity expansion highlights the need for a review of energy storage options. Wind power growth, in particular, is likely to require the support of dedicated fast-start reserve capacity. Moreover, in New Zealand, non-pumped hydroelectricity-based storage has only limited potential to meet seasonal variations of hydro inflows. This constraint has contributed to several ‘dry-year’ events over the last decade. This case study surveys New Zealand electricity sector experts as to the feasibility of meeting reserve capacity needs while reducing carbon emissions through the introduction of pumped hydro and utility-scale batteries by 2025. Most respondents project peak power demand to continue to increase, resulting in new-build centralised (∼150 MW) thermal reserve power sources. Pumped hydro is seen by most as prohibitively costly, but is almost universally viewed as technically capable of providing renewables support and peak power adequacy. Utility-scale batteries are seen as least cost-effective, with very high storage costs per kWh and most likely only to be used in NZ for very high-value applications where there is a strong technical advantage, such as the six-second instantaneous reserve. A price of carbon of around NZ$100/tCO2-e, however, was seen as making these technologies much more competitive, and climate change mitigation was seen as a strong driver of these storage options.

Stability of Wind Turbine Switching Control in an Integrated Wind Turbine and Rechargeable Battery System: A Common Quadratic Lyapunov Function Approach

The power generated by wind turbines varies due to variations in the wind speed. A pack of rechargeable batteries could be used as a reserve power source to alleviate the intermittency in the wind turbine power. An integrated wind turbine and battery storage system is constructed where the wind turbine is electrically connected to a rechargeable battery system. Such a system can operate in two modes depending on the wind speed, power demand, and battery limit. The switching conditions for the wind turbine to operate in multi-input, single-output and single-input, single-output control mode are discussed. Linearized approximations of the closed loop wind turbine system are derived in order to analyze the switching stability between control modes. Common quadratic Lyapunov function (CQLF) is established for both control modes to prove the system stability. Simulation results demonstrating system stability are also presented.

Biological fuel cell and an application as a reserve power source

A biological fuel cell was constructed in which the metabolism of glucose by yeast provided the electrons. A two compartment plexiglass fuel cell was constructed with platinum electrodes separated by a proton conducting membrane. One half of the cell contained yeast, Saccharomyces cerevisiae, glucose, and an electron mediator, methylene blue. The other half contained an electron acceptor, potassium ferricyanide. Electrons produced during the metabolism of glucose by the yeast were captured by the methylene blue and transferred to the platinum electrode, traveled through the external circuit to the cathode compartment, and were finally accepted by the potassium ferricyanide. When yeast was added to the fuel cell the open circuit potential was ∼0.5 V. Electrical current was measured while holding the cell voltage at 0.3 and 0.1 V. Current output was optimized for the initial concentration of yeast, temperature, glucose concentration, agitation and oxygen content. The optimum conditions for producing current within the scope of this study were obtained with agitated, partially oxygenated electrolyte at 45 °C containing 0.1 M glucose.

A variable inductor circuit design for inductive energy storage systems

A circuit design for matching an inductive energy storage to a utility grid and a complex load (railgun accelerator) is discussed. A circuit design is suggested for control of the discharge current to provide effective transfer of the energy stored in the inductive storage. It is shown that this circuit design, with a variable winding inductance, provides energy transmission control and allows both a higher efficiency of energy transfer and arrangement of a quick response reserve power source to maintain high-current energy transmission. The arrangement discussed may be used to provide matching of the energy user’s load current to the energy storage’s initial current which is determined either by the possibility of energy accumulation in the system or by the power supply source’s current.