Reserve Boundaries Research Articles

Towards climate-smart, three-dimensional protected areas for biodiversity conservation in the high seas

Marine species are moving rapidly in response to warming, often in different directions and with variations dependent on location and depth. Given the current impetus to increase the area of protected ocean to 30%, conservation planning must include the 64% of the ocean beyond national jurisdictions, which in turn requires associated design challenges for conventional conservation to be addressed. Here we present a planning approach for the high seas that conserves biodiversity, minimizes exposure to climate change, retains species within reserve boundaries and reduces conflict with fishing. This is developed using data from across four depth domains, considering 12,932 vertebrate, invertebrate and algal species and three climate scenarios. The resultant climate-smart conservation areas cover 6% of the high seas and represent a low-regret option that provides a nucleus for developing a full network of high-seas marine reserves. Protecting the ocean from increasing threats requires the development of high-seas marine reserve networks. An approach that optimizes biodiversity, minimizes climate change exposure and reduces fisheries conflict enables low-regret climate-smart conservation areas to be identified.

Physical geography trumps legal protection in driving the perceived sustainability of game hunting in Amazonian local communities

A considerable proportion of tropical protected areas are Sustainable Use Reserves (SURs), where socio-biodiversity protection and sustainable resource extraction are the main goals. Subsistence hunting is the most widespread form of subcanopy forest resource extraction, and often depletes game populations within SURs, but the degree to which these extractive activities are sustainable remains questionable. To assess patterns of hunting sustainability within SURs, we systematically examined the local ecological knowledge of 211 resident hunters living in 93 communities located within and immediately outside nine SURs of Brazilian Amazonia. We used mixed models to assess the effects of settlement features (distance to reserve boundaries, size, age, distance to urban centers, and extent of floodplain areas) on local perceptions of game abundance, the prey profile of the most consumed game species, and overall levels of local game depletion. Hunters consistently reported that game populations were less impacted within communal catchment areas containing larger amounts of floodplain habitat and farther from urban centers. In these areas the overall game abundance was perceived to be higher, low-fecundity species were most consumed, and harvest-sensitive species were least depleted. Local SUR communities within this context accrued higher benefits from higher wild-meat availability, but settlement age and size had no effects on hunted species. Evidence-based conservation management plans in tropical protected areas should focus on reducing wild meat demand in urban areas and managing both, the local aquatic animal protein in floodplain areas to relieve pressure on terrestrial game species, and the offtake of game populations at inland sites lacking access to aquatic animal protein.

Thirty years of amphibian surveys in the Ukagurus Mountains of Tanzania reveal new species, yet others are in decline

ABSTRACT Records of biodiversity over time are important resources for assessing conservation priorities. However, such baseline data are missing for regions of key biodiversity importance. The Eastern Arc Mountains of Tanzania are known for their species richness and endemism, but not all mountain blocks have received the same attention. The Ukaguru Mountains, for example, have only infrequently been surveyed by herpetologists, with the first known herpetological survey in 1990. Here we compile and quantify all amphibian survey efforts in the Ukaguru Mountains in the past 30 years, publish an updated species list and comment on the health of amphibian populations and their habitat. We report on fourteen described species of amphibians, with potentially three additional species awaiting formal description. Of these seventeen lineages, seven are endemic to the Ukaguru Mountains. Although total species numbers remain low, compared with other Eastern Arc Mountains, surveys frequently recorded new species for the Ukaguru Mountains and for science. Worryingly, however, endemics, such as the monotypic bufonid Churamiti maridadi, have not been recorded in the past fifteen years. Our analyses show the region is becoming warmer and drier and is experiencing an alarming rate of deforestation. We find that over the past 30 years, dense forest cover inside the boundaries of the forest reserves has reduced by 8.4%.

Urban expansion and infrastructure development reduce habitat suitability for Asian elephants in southwestern China

AbstractConservation interventions for threatened species must be based on accurate assessments of the effects of anthropogenic pressures on habitat suitability. We used multiscale multivariable species‐distribution modeling to evaluate habitat suitability for an Asian elephant (Elephas maximus) population in Shangyong Reserve, Yunnan Province, southwestern China. We investigated the scales at which measurements of environmental variables best reflected elephant habitat selection, and examined whether these responses changed over 2 decades (2000–2010 and 2011–2020) in response to 20 environmental variables, including 14 variables reflecting landscape fragmentation, the extent of buildings, and transport infrastructure. Elephant presence was sensitive to the scale of each variable, and the effects differed among variables within and between decades. More than half of the variables influenced elephant presence at coarse scales of 8 or 16 km, including 12 variables reflecting anthropogenic pressures in 2000–2010 and 10 in 2011–2020. Overall, multivariate models with variables at their optimal scales had higher discrimination than models at uniformly fine scales of 1 km or 2 km. The extent of suitable habitat for elephants declined by 24% over 2 decades. Less than half of elephant habitat was located within Shangyong Reserve (49% in 2000–2010, 40% in 2011–2020), indicating the importance of managing suitable habitat beyond reserve boundaries. Roads and buildings reduced the probability of elephant presence, with effects that extended beyond their immediate footprint. We advocate that infrastructure be planned with buffers, ≥8 km wide, between roads or buildings and core elephant habitat. Multiscale multivariable species‐distribution modeling should be employed to ensure that all suitable habitat for the remaining fragmented elephant populations in Yunnan is identified, mapped, and protected.

Using species distribution modelling to identify ‘coldspots’ for conservation of freshwater fishes under a changing climate

AbstractLike other Mediterranean regions, south‐western Australia is predicted to experience an increase in temperature and drought conditions as a result of climate change, leading to altered species distributions. This study provides the first assessment of the effectiveness of the reserve system in Australia for conserving native freshwater fish by considering the congruence between protected areas and potential climate refugia in a global biodiversity hotspot.Using species distribution modelling, exposure to climate change was predicted for 13 native fish taxa, and priority areas (refugia) for fish conservation were identified by overlapping the present and future suitable climate envelopes of these taxa. Areas with climate refugia for >70% of the native freshwater fish fauna were recognized as ‘coldspots’.Two taxa were predicted to lose all suitable climate in the region by 2080, and five other taxa were predicted to lose >80% of their area of suitable climate. A ‘coldspot’ was identified consisting of a core area where >80% of taxa were predicted to persist and a larger surrounding area where >70% of taxa were predicted to persist.Although 93% of the core area of the coldspot is at present contained within the established protected areas network, only 26% of the surrounding area is contained within reserve boundaries. Future conservation actions, including the design and implementation of the protected area network, should take this coldspot into consideration.

Decadal stability in the distribution of bottlenose dolphins in Dusky Sound/Tamatea, New Zealand

ABSTRACT Recreational use of wild spaces is increasingly popular, resulting in a burgeoning tourism industry. Such activities can degrade the environment and disrupt the behaviour and natural function of organisms. A small population of bottlenose dolphins (Tursiops truncatus) is resident in Dusky Sound, New Zealand, a fjord with increasing human use. Dolphins, as top predators, play an important role within ecosystems and are at risk of long-term negative consequences from behavioural changes when exposed to high levels of vessel activity. A better understanding of the distribution of the dolphins in Dusky Sound would provide a framework for developing management within the fjord. Here we describe where dolphins were most frequently found, based on >40,000 km of photo-ID survey effort conducted over 10 years. Kernel density estimation revealed two large core areas that remained consistent over the duration of this study. This information could be used to determine areas within Dusky Sound where human activities around dolphins could be managed to avoid anthropogenically driven detrimental impacts. We suggest the following: (1) establish dolphin protection zones, (2) create a marine mammal sanctuary, (3) extend marine reserve boundaries, and/or (4) lower catch limits for fish within the fjord boundaries.

The Influence of Boundary Habitat Continuity on Spillover from a Mediterranean Marine Protected Area

The effectiveness of marine protected areas (MPAs) to restore populations of exploited species, both within and outside of their boundaries through net movement of individuals (“spillover”), can potentially be affected by continuity of habitats across the boundaries. Sandy seabeds may reduce movement of reef-associated species across MPA boundaries, thereby increasing the ‘reserve effect’ while decreasing spillover. Underwater visual censuses were undertaken inside the Cerbère-Banyuls Marine Reserve (CBMR) (France) and adjacent non-protected areas to assess the influence of habitat on spillover. Total fish biomass and mean fish size were significantly higher within the MPA, but rapidly declined across the reserve boundary. Nevertheless, there was no indication of a sharper decline in biomass at the northern boundary where a habitat discontinuity was present relative to the southern boundary with continuous habitat. This result may reflect a number of complicating factors that make assessment of spillover potential difficult, and which may also lead to the uncertainty about which situations and how much spillover may contribute to fished populations outside reserves. In particular, the home range area of the key exploited species relative to the scale of the habitat mosaic, and potentially different levels of fishing pressure at each boundary likely contribute to variability. While the CBMR appeared particularly well-suited to investigating this question, resolving these issues and identifying general principles for where and how much spillover occurs will likely be difficult without a series of specially designed MPAs. This highlights a conundrum facing MPA establishment in the face of pressures to be successful for both biodiversity conservation and to offer fisheries benefits—the latter are clearly not ubiquitous, but a shortage of suitable MPAs that can be used as scientific tools for better understanding how and when these benefits may occur is precluded by a general lack of MPAs designed and managed for this purpose. The results of this study do, however, clearly highlight the biodiversity conservation benefits of the CBMR.

An Innovative Framework on Spatial Boundary Optimization of Multiple International Designated Land Use

The continuous improvement of international protection awareness has dramatically increased the number of protection organizations and promoted various reserve-naming methods. However, the existing global natural reserves have either fully or partially overlapped, thereby allowing the same region to hold various international titles, resulting in serious issues, which are especially manifested in the boundary delimitation process of natural reserves. Therefore, delimiting the titles of reserve borders will become an enormous challenge in protected-area governance worldwide. This study conducted an in-depth investigation of the technical methods for delineating the spatial boundaries of natural reserves. Taking Jiangshan Nature Reserve in China as the case object, the Candidate Area–Natural background–Heritage Resource–Construction (C-NHC) framework was constructed, and the boundaries of the new reserves were delineated. This study has changed the status quo of the spatial overlap of the reserve through the quantitative evaluation of the conflict patches and the triple optimization of the boundary of the reserve. The area of the new reserve is 150.524 km2, which is 6.682 km2 larger than the original one. The original reserves are all included within the scope of the new one. This study provides guidance and new insights into the boundary delineation of integrated nature reserves worldwide.

Habitat selection by Siberian Cranes at their core stopover area during migration in Northeast China

Stopover habitats are crucial refuelling and resting sites for migratory birds to ensure their complete migration and successful reproduction and survival. The Siberian Crane ( Grus leucogeranus ) has been recognized as critically endangered according to ‘Red List’ by the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN); however their stopover habitats are threatened by various causes and thus, are depleting. To identify the range and environmental characteristics of the stopover habitats selected by the Siberian Cranes during their migration in Northeast China, important factors influencing these habitats and habitat suitability distribution were studied by using the maximum entropy model. Subsequently, climate conditions and wetland types were the most important factors, based on which the Siberian cranes selected the stopover habitats. The stopover habitats selected by the Siberian Cranes were primarily located in areas with mean annual total precipitation less than 400 mm, mean annual temperature between 4 °C and 7 °C, and seasonal brackish and alkaline marshes. Areas within and near the Momoge National Nature Reserve on the West Songnen Plain were vital resting sites for the Siberian Crane. The spatial distribution of habitat suitability evidently varied, and 20% areas of the reserve, which demonstrated a high degree of habitat suitability, were observed outside the reserve boundaries, thus, indicating gaps in conservation of the Siberian Cranes habitats in Northeast China. The results of this study highlight the need for implementing effective measures to conserve the Siberian Cranes habitat to maintain sustainable ecosystems. • Factors influencing stopover habitat selection of the Siberian cranes were studied. • Temperature, precipitation, and wetland types were identified as key factors. • Maximum entropy model estimated the habitat suitability distribution. • High suitability habitats occurred outside the Momoge National Nature Reserve.

The incursion of free-ranging dogs into protected areas: A spatio-temporal analysis in a network of giant panda reserves

Nature reserves are an effective tool in protecting species that are threatened by anthropogenic factors. However, various subtle but significant human disturbances still negatively affect wildlife, such as the incursion of domestic dogs (Canis lupus familiaris) into wildlife communities. We conducted camera trap surveys and tracked GPS-collared dogs in and around a network of 17 nature reserves, and examined the spatio-temporal responses of eight abundant large and medium-sized wild animals to domestic dogs, including seven mammals (leopard cat, Prionailurus bengalensis; wild boar, Sus scrofa; Reeve's muntjac, Muntiacus reevesi; tufted deer, Elaphodus cephalophus; hog badger, Arctonyx albogularis; Siberian weasel, Mustela sibirica, and yellow-throated marten, Martes flavigula), and one pheasant (golden pheasant, Chrysolophus pictus). Our occupancy models indicated that the presence of domestic dogs negatively affected the occurrence probability of all focal species except for the yellow-throated marten. For wild boar, Reeve's muntjac, leopard cat and golden pheasant that we had sufficient data to further examine their temporal response to domestic dogs, we found that three species but leopard cat demonstrated temporal avoidance of domestic dogs, and dogs temporally followed the detections of these species. By overlapping the predicted distribution of dogs with nature reserve boundaries, we estimated that wildlife in approximately 19.8% of the 17-nature reserve network were potentially under the negative impact by domestic dog activity. Our study revealed the urgent need for nature reserves within the giant panda range, and possibly elsewhere, to consider domestic dogs as a significant human disturbance.

Analysing the rate of land use and land-cover changes in Gambari Forest Reserve, Nigeria

Abstract in English This research work discusses the phenomenon of land use and land cover, which has undergone constant changes over the past few decades due to major variations in the environment caused by anthropogenic and natural factors. This study is supported by a long time series of land use and land-cover satellite data of the Gambari Forest Reserve boundary map for 1984, 2004, and 2020. A maximum likelihood classification scheme was employed to classify the satellite imageries using ArcGIS 10.1 software to derive the spatial patterns and temporal variation of the land-use and land-cover change (LULC) classes: dense forest (DF), light forest (LF) and non-forest (NF). Data on deforestation of the study area showed that the area of DF increased from 31.7 km2 (23.4%) to 72.8 km2 (54.4%) within a 36-year time series, with a percentage change of 31.0%. The area of LF decreased from 79.2 km2 (65.4%) to 51.2 km2 (41.5%), with a percentage change of −23.9%, and that of NF decreased from 14.7 km2 (11.2%) to 2.6 km2 (4.1%), with a percentage change of −7.1%. This indicates that it would be reasonable to anticipate an increase in deforestation in the future.

Quantifying the nutritional and income loss caused by crop raiding in a rural African subsistence farming community in South Africa.

Globally, crop damage by wildlife contributes to food insecurity through the direct loss of food and income. We investigated the calories lost and the potential economic impact of crop raiding at subsistence homesteads abutting the Hluhluwe Game Reserve, and assessed mitigation measures to combat crop raiding. We quantified the seasonal loss of calories (kJ/g) of four common crops, namely, beetroot, common bean, maize, and spinach, and determined the seasonal potential income loss. We used a stratified sampling approach to sample the homesteads. We found that season, crop type and the interaction between season and crop type predicted relative calorie loss and potential income loss, with the highest income loss recorded for spinach in the dry season. Significant differences were found for the potential income loss for all crop types in the wet season, and for the interaction between the crop types (maize, spinach) and the wet season. Farm slope was also a significant predictor of the relative calorie loss. Crop raiding animals, crops raided and distance of farms from the reserve all had a significant effect on the choice of mitigation measures of farmers. The highest relative calorie loss was for maize during the dry season, which could affect the subsistence farmers by reducing their daily calorie intake. This has an impact on their food security, especially during the dry season. Moreover, the most preferred mitigation measure used by farmers can have opportunity costs. These results have important implications for food security policies and practices.

An MPA Design Approach to Benefit Fisheries: Maximising Larval Export and Minimising Redundancy

In the design of marine protected areas (MPAs), tailoring reserve placement to facilitate larval export beyond reserve boundaries may support fished populations and fisheries through recruitment subsidies. Intuitively, capturing such connectivity could be purely based on optimising larval dispersal metrics such as export strength. However, this can lead to inefficient or redundant larval connectivity, as the subset of sites with the best connectivity metrics might share many of the same connections, making them, collectively, poor MPA candidates to provide recruitment subsidies to unprotected sites. We propose a simple, dynamic algorithm for reserve placement optimisation designed to select MPAs sequentially, maximising larval export to the overall network, whilst accounting for redundancy in supply from multiple sources. When applied to four regions in the Caribbean, the algorithm consistently outperformed approaches that did not consider supply redundancy, leading to, on average, 20% greater fished biomass in a simulated model. Improvements were most apparent in dense, strongly connected systems such as the Bahamas. Here, MPA placement without redundancy considerations produced fishery benefits worse than random MPA design. Our findings highlight the importance of considering redundancy in MPA design, and offer a novel, simple approach to improving MPA design for achieving fishery objectives.

Satellite-based modelling of potential tsetse (Glossina pallidipes) breeding and foraging sites using teneral and non-teneral fly occurrence data

BackgroundAfrican trypanosomiasis, which is mainly transmitted by tsetse flies (Glossina spp.), is a threat to public health and a significant hindrance to animal production. Tools that can reduce tsetse densities and interrupt disease transmission exist, but their large-scale deployment is limited by high implementation costs. This is in part limited by the absence of knowledge of breeding sites and dispersal data, and tools that can predict these in the absence of ground-truthing.MethodsIn Kenya, tsetse collections were carried out in 261 randomized points within Shimba Hills National Reserve (SHNR) and villages up to 5 km from the reserve boundary between 2017 and 2019. Considering their limited dispersal rate, we used in situ observations of newly emerged flies that had not had a blood meal (teneral) as a proxy for active breeding locations. We fitted commonly used species distribution models linking teneral and non-teneral tsetse presence with satellite-derived vegetation cover type fractions, greenness, temperature, and soil texture and moisture indices separately for the wet and dry season. Model performance was assessed with area under curve (AUC) statistics, while the maximum sum of sensitivity and specificity was used to classify suitable breeding or foraging sites.ResultsGlossina pallidipes flies were caught in 47% of the 261 traps, with teneral flies accounting for 37% of these traps. Fitted models were more accurate for the teneral flies (AUC = 0.83) as compared to the non-teneral (AUC = 0.73). The probability of teneral fly occurrence increased with woodland fractions but decreased with cropland fractions. During the wet season, the likelihood of teneral flies occurring decreased as silt content increased. Adult tsetse flies were less likely to be trapped in areas with average land surface temperatures below 24 °C. The models predicted that 63% of the potential tsetse breeding area was within the SHNR, but also indicated potential breeding pockets outside the reserve.ConclusionModelling tsetse occurrence data disaggregated by life stages with time series of satellite-derived variables enabled the spatial characterization of potential breeding and foraging sites for G. pallidipes. Our models provide insight into tsetse bionomics and aid in characterising tsetse infestations and thus prioritizing control areas.Graphical abstract

Molecular characterization of Trypanosoma vivax in tsetse flies confirms the presence of the virulent Tvv4 genotype in Kenya: Potential implications for the control of trypanosomiasis in Shimba Hills.

Trypanosoma vivax is a vector-borne protozoan parasite of livestock endemic to Africa and South America. To date, fifteen genotypes of the parasite have been described in vertebrate and insect hosts in East Africa. However, information regarding T. vivax diversity remains limited in many endemic countries in the sub-region, including Kenya. Such information could deepen insight into the local epidemiology of animal trypanosomiasis in Shimba Hills, a wildlife area in southeast Kenya where T. vivax is endemic and infects livestock. We employed two-gene conventional-PCR-sequencing and phylogenetic analysis to characterize T. vivax genotypes in tsetse flies collected between November 2018 and September 2019 in the wildlife-livestock interface of the Shimba Hills National Reserve. Phylogenetic analysis of Internal Transcribed Spacer-1 (ITS-1) sequences of T. vivax isolates confirmed the presence of two T. vivax genotypes in Shimba Hills of which >80% of T. vivax isolates from tsetse flies clustered within the virulent Tvv4-genotype clade. Tsetse infections with the Tvv4 genotype were also confirmed based on 18S rRNA gene sequencing. Expanded gene characterization identified three closely related haplotypes within the Tvv4-clade. The Tvv4-isolates were detected in male and female Glossina pallidipes tsetse flies, most of which were collected from grasslands and within two kilometres of the Shimba Hills National Reserve boundary. Considering that T. vivax is the most common trypanosome in the Shimba Hills area and causes severe clinical conditions in livestock, the Tvv4 genotype reported here for the first time in Kenya contributes to our understanding of these pathologies. The effectiveness of trypanocidal drugs in the management of Tvv4 is presently not clearly understood. Therefore, the parasite management in Shimba Hills should focus on vector control to reduce the density of G. pallidipes, especially in grasslands near the wildlife protectorate.

The overlap of suitable tea plant habitat with Asian elephant (Elephus maximus) distribution in southwestern China and its potential impact on species conservation and local economy.

The expansion of land being used for cash crop cultivation has threatened wildlife in recent decades. Tea has become the dominant cash crop in southwestern China. Unfortunately, tea plantations may threaten Asian elephant (Elephus maximus) populations via habitat loss and fragmentation. Identifying areas of suitable habitat for tea plant cultivation, and where this habitat overlaps with Asian elephant distribution, is vital for planning land use, managing nature reserves, shaping policy, and maintaining local economies. Here, we assess the potential impact of tea plantations on Asian elephants in southwestern Yunnan province, China. We used MaxEnt modeling with bioclimatic and environmental variables to identify suitable habitat for tea plant cultivation under the current climate scenario, and then overlapped this habitat with 9 known Asian elephant distribution areas (G1-G9) to determine "threatened areas." Our results showed that (1) annual precipitation (48.1% contribution), temperature constancy (29 % contribution), and slope (8.7 % contribution) were key in determining suitable habitat for tea plants; (2) the cumulative area of suitable habitat for tea plants was 13,784.88 km2, mainly distributed in Menghai (3934.53 km2), Lancang (3198.67 km2), and Jinghong (2657.74 km2); (3) the distribution area of elephants was 943.75 km2, and these areas overlapped with suitable tea plant habitat primarily located in G4 (379.40 km2), G3 (251.18), and G7 (168.03 km2); and (4) threatened areas in G1 and G7 were predominately located along the periphery of current nature reserves. Win-win solutions that work for elephant conservation and economic development include rescoping nature reserve boundaries, strengthening management on the periphery of nature reserves, establishing ecological corridors and new nature reserves within regions where elephants are currently distributed, planting alternative cash crops, and financial subsidies to farmers. This study improves understanding of human-elephant coexistence, and will assist in guiding land use policy for the future conservation outcomes seeking to promote responsible and profitable cash crop farming and elephant conservation.

Successful parks for sharks: No-take marine reserve provides conservation benefits to endemic and threatened sharks off South Africa

Sharks are among the most threatened vertebrates on the planet. Marine protected areas (MPAs) have been widely established and promoted as a shark conservation tool. However, the geographic ranges of most imperiled shark species (endemic and threatened) fall outside the current global networks of MPAs, leaving the protective benefits of this tool questionable for the shark species of highest conservation concern. The Western Cape of South Africa is a hotspot for endemic and threatened shark species. Here, we examined the potential protective benefit of a no-take marine reserve (the De Hoop MPA) for imperiled shark species using baited remote underwater video stations (BRUVS). Eleven shark species were documented, with six of 11 species (55%) classified as threatened with extinction by the International Union for the Conservation of Nature. The composition of the shark assemblage was dominated by small to mid-sized species, including small endemics. Species-specific habitat preferences were identified, with all these habitats represented in the MPA. Frequency of occurrence and relative abundance of sharks on BRUVS were significantly higher inside the De Hoop MPA than outside. Both protected and commercially exploited sharks species exhibited higher relative abundance inside the MPA. Relative abundance also increased inside the MPA with increasing distance from the reserve boundaries. Our findings suggest that no-take MPAs can be an effective tool for protecting shark species of conservation concern, including threatened endemics, particularly if the MPA adequately incorporates their preferred habitats.

Marine Reserve Design [Video

Marine sanctuaries are an important part of ocean conservation today, but because of their local economic effects on industries such as fisheries, gas and oil extraction, and tourism, they produce conflicts of interest between different stakeholders and value systems. These conflicting interests were on display in the proposal for new marine reserve boundaries for the Channel Islands Marine Sanctuary, which was first created in 1980. To capture the interplay of these competing interests, a statistical decision maker model was built. The econometric model predicts the response of fishermen – in this case urchin divers – to each proposed marine preserve boundary. The predicted response could then be factored into the design of the preserve, to more accurately capture the actual biological gains from each proposed boundary. <br> Video available at: https://vimeo.com/527396635

Community perceptions towards nature conservation in the Eastern Cape Province, South Africa

Relationships between protected area managers and adjacent communities, as well as communities’ attitudes, views and perceptions of these areas, are critical for the success of conservation efforts. It is important for protected area managers and administrators to understand how local communities view these areas and their management, so that they can build sustainable working rel ationships. This paper is based on a survey of 375 semi-structured questionnaires administered to household heads, living at distances ranging from the edge of the reserves to 50 km away from the reserve boundary across the Great Fish River, Mkambati, Hluleka, and Tsolwana nature reserves in the Eastern Cape Province, South Africa. The paper provides a longitudinal assessment of households’ knowledge about the role of reserves and the reserves’ impacts on livelihood assets. In addition to households’ knowledge about the role of reserves, the paper also provides an assessment of people’s attitudes towards their location and management, as well as views on the best way to manage the reserves. For 79% of community members, reserves were important as they were seen to conserve biodiversity and valuable ecological systems necessary for sustaining life. Most (75%) respondents indicated that closely located reserves gave them opportunities to learn about nature conservation and to subsidize their incomes through tourism ventures. However, 58% had a problem with reserves’ staff, due to restrictions on resource use, which negatively impacted their livelihoods. Over half (51%) of the households argued that sustainable conservation can only be achieved through an integrated approach where conservation and local communities’ needs are given equal weight. We concluded that reserve managers should look at communities as active partners in the management of protected areas if sustainable conservation objectives are to be realised.

Small marine reserves do not provide a safeguard against overfishing

AbstractMarine reserves aim to protect harvested species within their boundaries and can therefore provide insurance against the effects of overfishing. To evaluate whether marine reserves are meeting this expectation, we compiled over 40 years of rock lobster (Jasus edwardsii) monitoring data and examined long‐term trends in three relatively small marine reserves (c.4–8 km2) in northern New Zealand, a region that has experienced large‐scale declines in the fishery over the last decade. In all three reserves, lobster density initially increased by at least a factor of three following protection. However, over the last 10 years, lobster populations have experienced large declines in all three reserves with densities now 59–80%, and spawning stock biomass (SSB) now 51–86%, below historic levels. Using peak lobster density in each reserve as an unfished reference point, current densities on fished reefs are <15% of unfished levels and SSB is currently only 3–12% of peak population biomass in reserves. These results highlight the poor state of the wider stock and declines in the reserves follow regional declines in catch‐per‐unit‐effort in the fishery, suggesting that lobster populations within these reserves are not fully protected from fishing. Adult J. edwardsii are known to undertake seasonal foraging excursions that carry them beyond the offshore boundaries of these reserves where they are susceptible to fishing‐related mortality. We propose that the observed declines are likely a result of direct harvest of individuals beyond reserve boundaries and that larger reserves which encompass both a species' longshore and offshore movements are needed.