Research-based Instructional Strategies Research Articles

Curriculum Considerations for Developing Mathematical Talent in Elementary Students

To effectively nurture the talents of elementary students with mathematical talent they need to be challenged with an advanced curriculum that is designed with their specific needs in mind. The purpose of this paper is to describe an effective model for developing such a curriculum and explore effective, research-based examples of curriculum and instruction using this model. The paper begins with a review of literature covering a broadened definition of mathematical talent that showcases the need for a more complex and multi-dimensional curriculum to nurture their talents. Next, evidence-based curriculum considerations for talented students at the elementary level are explored. Essential characteristics of mathematics curriculum for talented students are detailed including a focus on advanced content, conceptual development and higher-level processes akin to those used by mathematicians. Accompanying research-based instructional strategies to increase challenge, complexity, and creativity are outlined. Examples at the primary and elementary grade levels are provided to illustrate effective, research-based curriculum and instruction that develop mathematical talent in advanced students.

A rationale for promoting cognitive science in teacher education: Deconstructing prevailing learning myths and advancing research-based practices

PurposeCognitive science is essential to designing, implementing, and evaluating instruction for enhancing student learning. However, there may not be sufficient focus on the principles of cognitive science, as some educators hold learning beliefs that may be considered cognitive myths. ProceduresThis review article analyzes examples of five learning myths (learning styles, pure discovery learning, digital natives, extrinsic motivation, multitasking) and five research-based learning strategies (dual coding, direct instruction, summarization, retrieval practice, spacing). It details the research evidence for each to explain those misconceptions of learning and also those underutilized or misunderstood but effective strategies shown to benefit student learning. ConclusionEducational practices related to learning myths are widespread in education with potentially detrimental effects on student learning. We recommend that colleges of education be restructured to ensure greater emphasis on cognitive science in educator preparation programs to better promote research-based instructional strategies to meet students’ learning needs.

In critical need of research-based instructional strategies and assessment: an investigation of ePCR math lesson plans for middle school students

One favored approach to teaching computational thinking (CT) and coding skills in PK-12 computer science education is to use educational physical computing and robotics devices (ePCRs). Marrying the physical functionalities and computer coding possibilities, ePCRs show great promise in cultivating PK-12 students’ CT and 21-st century skills. However, in practice, there is a lack of experienced teachers and readily-available ePCR curricula, which poses challenges in classroom integration. Thus, the purpose of this article is to analyze publicly-available ePCR math lesson plans designed for middle school students, especially focusing on lesson characteristics, instructional strategies, assessment plans, and 21st-century skills cultivated. After analyzing 283 publicly-available ePCR math lesson plans, we found that they used a variety of educational technologies. In particular, the majority utilize physical coding and the tools’ functionalities to move, draw, show visuals, and play audio. However, most of the lesson plans are in critical need of research-based instructional strategies and assessment plans and instruments. Our empirical evidence warrants a great need for additional research, design, and professional development in the area of effectively integrating ePCRs into content areas, especially in the aspects of active learning strategies, student-centered assessment, and more profound pedagogies to cultivate students’ 21st-century skills.

Review of Expanding Literacy: Bringing Digital Storytelling into Your Classroom

Brett Pierce's recent book Expanding Literacy: Bringing Digital Storytelling into Your Classroom (Heinemann, 2022) provides accessible, research-based instructional strategies and assessment for integrating digital literacy practices in classrooms, while honoring students' existing literacy expertise and creating more equitable classroom spaces.

Examining whether and how instructional coordination occurs within introductory undergraduate STEM courses

Instructors’ interactions can foster knowledge sharing around teaching and the use of research-based instructional strategies (RBIS). Coordinated teaching presents an impetus for instructors’ interactions and creates opportunities for instructional improvement but also potentially limits an instructor’s autonomy. In this study, we sought to characterize the extent of coordination present in introductory undergraduate courses and to understand how departments and instructors implement and experience course coordination. We examined survey data from 3,641 chemistry, mathematics, and physics instructors at three institution types and conducted follow-up interviews with a subset of 24 survey respondents to determine what types of coordination existed, what factors led to coordination, how coordination constrained instruction, and how instructors maintained autonomy within coordinated contexts. We classified three approaches to coordination at both the overall course and course component levels: independent (i.e., not coordinated), collaborative (decision-making by instructor and others), controlled (decision-making by others, not instructor). Two course components, content coverage and textbooks, were highly coordinated. These curricular components were often decided through formal or informal committees, but these decisions were seldom revisited. This limited the ability for instructors to participate in the decision-making process, the level of interactions between instructors, and the pedagogical growth that could have occurred through these conversations. Decision-making around the other two course components, instructional methods and exams, was more likely to be independently determined by the instructors, who valued this autonomy. Participants in the study identified various ways in which collaborative coordination of courses can promote but also inhibit pedagogical growth. Our findings indicate that the benefits of collaborative course coordination can be realized when departments develop coordinated approaches that value each instructor’s autonomy, incorporate shared and ongoing decision-making, and facilitate collaborative interactions and knowledge sharing among instructors.

Implementing the learning assistant model in European higher education

The learning assistant (LA) model is a widely used and researched model for institutional and course transformation towards research-based instructional strategies (RBIS). The LA model leverages learning assistants, pedagogically trained students, to facilitate student learning in active learning environments. However, although the LA model has shown significant results when implemented in university contexts in the United States, there has as yet been little documentation of similar implementation or results in European higher education. In this study, we present the results of a three-semester design-based research project to implement the LA Model in a Scandinavian physics department. The three core elements of the LA model (pedagogical training, course content meetings, and teaching in active learning environments) were implemented and iteratively refined, with necessary adjustments due to the specific institutional and cultural contexts documented. Throughout all three semesters, data was collected on how participation in the LA model affected LAs’ buy-in to RBIS using focus groups, pre/post surveys, and teaching observations. A thematic analysis of these data showed that participation in the LA model helped ensure LA buy-in to both the interactive engagement methods and goal of cultivating conceptual understanding that underlie most RBIS, and that the combination of teaching practice and pedagogical training seminars were key to this buy-in. We argue that these results demonstrate the potential usefulness of the LA model for creating institutional and cultural change in European higher education.

Exercisable Learning-Theory and Evidence-Based Andragogy for Training Effectiveness using XR (ELEVATE-XR): Elevating the ROI of Immersive Technologies

eXtended Reality (XR) promises to provide a powerful capability to disseminate a vast array of instructional content appropriate for all types and levels of learners, ultimately revolutionizing education and training. Yet, while XR presents an opportunity for a powerful paradigm shift in education, a scientifically grounded andragogy for harnessing the didactic power of XR has yet to emerge. Herein, a unified framework of research-based instructional strategies for guiding the design of proficiency-based XR educational and training content is proposed, along with an associated naval maintenance use case. While this work draws on relevant pedagogical and andragogical theories, as well as fundamental learning theories applicable to learners of all ages, the framework specifically targets adult learners and training of complex skills applicable to various professional domains. Within the framework, learning theories have been aligned with learner proficiency level to specify competency-based learning objectives and activities, XR form factors, and learning loops that are anticipated to boost XR training efficacy. The proposed framework—the Exercisable Learning-theory and EVidence-based Andragogy for Training Effectiveness using XR (ELEVATE-XR)—is meant to serve as a guide to drive effective and efficient design of XR applications that enhance adult learning.

Association of malleable factors with adoption of research-based instructional strategies in introductory chemistry, mathematics, and physics

Active learning pedagogies are shown to enhance the outcomes of students, particularly in disciplines known for high attrition rates. Despite the demonstrated benefits of active learning, didactic lecture continues to predominate in science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) courses. Change agents and professional development programs have historically placed emphasis on develop–disseminate efforts for the adoption of research-based instructional strategies (RBIS). With numerous reported barriers and motivators for trying out and adopting active learning, it is unclear to what extent these factors are associated with adoption of RBIS and the effectiveness of change strategies. We present the results of a large-scale, survey-based study of introductory chemistry, mathematics, and physics instructors and their courses in the United States. Herein, we evaluate the association of 17 malleable factors with the tryout and adoption of RBIS. Multilevel logistic regression analyses suggest that several contextual, personal, and teacher thinking factors are associated with different stages of RBIS adoption. These results are also compared with analogous results evaluating the association of these factors with instructors’ time spent lecturing. We offer actionable implications for change agents to provide targeted professional development programming and for institutional leaders to influence the adoption of active learning pedagogies in introductory STEM courses.

Cutting our losses: The effects of a loss-aversion strategy on student learning gains

In this randomized controlled trial with controls for student characteristics, the authors used a loss-aversion strategy to test whether students achieve greater learning gains from combining research-based instructional strategies with loss aversion. Students in the control group began the class with no grades and built their course average by completing assignments and exams. The treatment group began with a score of 100 percent on each assignment and viewed the deductions on scores from errors and missed work. The results indicated that students in the treatment group experienced gains in learning that were, on average, 5 to 13 percentage points larger than those of the control group. These learning gains were concentrated among students with low SAT math scores.

Convergence Between Teacher Self-Report and School Administrator Observation Ratings Using the Classroom Strategies Assessment System

The Classroom Strategies Assessment System (CSAS) is a multi-rater, multi-method (direct observation and rating scale methodology) assessment of teachers’ use of research-based instructional and behavior management strategies. The present study investigated the association between teacher self-report and school administrator ratings using the CSAS Teacher (CSAS-T) and Observer (CSAS-O) Forms in 15 high-poverty U.S. charter schools. The CSAS-T and CSAS-O were designed to be used concurrently as a valid formative assessment of teacher practice. Findings include small, but statistically significant correlations between the CSAS-T and CSAS-O. Analysis of a multi-trait–multi-method (MTMM) matrix found teachers and observers to be measuring different constructs. No mean score differences were found between teacher self-reported instruction and behavior management strategy use compared with school administrators’ observed ratings. Furthermore, school administrators and teachers have similar ratings of overall effectiveness, with the majority of teachers in the sample being rated at or above effective. Overall, findings offer support for using the CSAS-O and CSAS-T for guiding professional development conversations.

A Broad Doorway to the Big Tent: A Four-Strand Model for Discipline-Based Faculty Development on Inquiry-Based Learning

Faculty professional development is an important lever for change in supporting instructors to adopt research-based instructional strategies that engage students intellectually, foster learning-supportive attitudes and habits of mind, and strengthen their persistence in mathematics. Yet the literature contains few well-rationalized models for faculty development in higher education. We describe the rationale and design for a model for discipline-based faculty development to support instructional change, and we detail our implementation of this model as applied to intensive workshops on inquiry-based learning (IBL) in college mathematics. These workshops seek to foster post-secondary mathematics instructors’ adoption of IBL, to help them adapt inquiry approaches for their classrooms, and ultimately to increase student learning and persistence in science and mathematics. Based on observed faculty needs, four strands of activity help instructors develop a mental model for an IBL classroom, adapt that model to their teaching context, develop facilitation and task-design skills, and plan an IBL mathematics course. Evaluation data from surveys and observations illustrate participant responses to the workshop and its components. The model has been robust across 15 years of workshops implemented by three generations of workshop leaders and its features make it adaptive, strategic, and practical for other faculty developers.

Investigating the linkage between professional development and mathematics instructors' use of teaching practices using the theory of planned behavior.

Professional development has been identified as an effective way to increase college STEM instructors’ use of research-based instructional strategies (RBIS) known to benefit student learning and persistence in STEM. Yet only a few studies relate professional development experiences to later teaching behaviors of higher education instructors. This study of 361 undergraduate mathematics instructors, all of whom participated in multi-day, discipline-based workshops on teaching held in 2010–2019, examined the relationship between such participation and later use of RBIS. We found that instructors’ RBIS attitudes, knowledge, and skills strengthened after participating in professional development, and their self-reported use of RBIS became more frequent in the first year after the workshop. Applying the Theory of Planned Behavior as a conceptual framework, we used a structural equation model to test whether this theory could explain the roles of workshop participation and other personal, professional and contextual factors in fostering RBIS use. Findings indicated that, along with workshop participation, prior RBIS experience, class size, and course coordination affected RBIS use. That is, both targeted professional development and elements of the local context for implementation were important in supporting instructors’ uptake of RBIS—but, remarkably, both immediate and longer-term outcomes of professional development did not depend on other individual or institutional characteristics. In this study, the large sample size, longitudinal measurement approach, and consistency of the form and quality of professional development make it possible to distinguish the importance of multiple possible influences on instructors’ uptake of RBIS. We discuss implications for professional development and for institutional structures that support instructors as they apply what they learned, and we offer suggestions for the use of theory in future research on this topic.

Flexible Facilitation: Coaching and Modelling to Support Inclusive Education

The practices of education, such as separate and resource placements, pull-out services, scripted intervention programmes, an emphasis on diagnoses, and behaviorist discipline practices, are not conducive to the goals of inclusive education. This study demonstrates how one instructional coach worked to disrupt traditional special education practices and guide special educators towards the use of more effective research-based instructional strategies and collaborative practices to promote inclusion. Using Robert Stake’s intrinsic case study methodology, we explored the perceived roles of coaching and modelling to promote inclusion through the lens of one coach who modelled methods for the special education teachers in multiple general education classrooms. The following themes emerged from the multiphase analysis of data collected throughout the coaching project: coaching as flexible facilitation, coaching as recognition of existing good practice, coaching pedagogical decision-making, coaching instructional reflectivity, and coaching collaborative partnerships. Coaching and modelling for special educators are recommended for promoting inclusive education as they embrace the complexity of changing classroom practice and can enhance collaborative instructional practice.

The Process of Designing Integrated STEM Learning Materials: Case Study towards an Evidence-based Model

This study models the process of designing learning materials for integrated STEM (iSTEM) in secondary education, as gone through by four multidisciplinary teams of STEM teachers in Flanders (Belgium). In order to identify the crucial, counterproductive, and missing activities in the observed design processes, the learning materials developed by each team were assessed with respect to the key principles of iSTEM education. Crucial activities in the observed design processes appeared to be the formation of a multidisciplinary design team, a brainstorm on themes, the identification and linking of STEM contents, and the exploration of a feasible, engaging student challenge with interrelated subproblems. The observed processes lacked a specification of the targeted learning goals and the inclusion of research-based instructional strategies aiming at these goals. The evidence-based model of the iSTEM design process resulting from this study can fuel teacher training programs and empower pre- and in-service teachers to create high-quality integrated STEM education.

Applying Research-Based Teaching Strategies in a Biomedical Engineering Programming Course: Introduction to Computer Aided Diagnosis.

There are increasing calls for the use of research-based teaching strategies to improve engagement and learning in engineering. In this innovation paper, we detail the application of research-based teaching strategies in a computer programming focused biomedical engineering module. This four-week, one-credit undergraduate biomedical engineering (BME) programming-based image processing module consisted of a blend of lectures, active learning exercises, guided labs, and a final project. Students completed surveys and generated concept maps at three time points in the module (pre, mid, and post) to document the impact of integrating research-based teaching strategies. Students demonstrated a significant (p < 0.05) increase in conceptual knowledge, confidence with material, and belief in the usefulness of material from the beginning to end of the module. Students also had high (> 4 out of 5) perceptions of gains in knowledge and attitudes toward instructor support. Overall, the novel design utilized multiple research-based pedagogies and increased students’ conceptual knowledge, self-efficacy, and perceived usefulness of material. The proposed design is an example of how multiple research-based instructional strategies can be integrated into an undergraduate biomedical engineering course.Supplementary InformationThe online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s43683-021-00057-w.

The Taxonomy of Opportunities to Learn (TxOTL): a tool for understanding the learning potential and substance of interactions in faculty (online) learning community meetings

BackgroundWhile many research-based instructional strategies in STEM have been developed, faculty need support in implementing and sustaining use of these strategies. A number of STEM faculty professional development programs aim to provide such pedagogical support, and it is necessary to understand the activity and learning process for faculty in these settings. In this paper, a taxonomy for describing the learning opportunities in faculty (online) learning community meetings is presented. Faculty learning communities, meeting either in-person or (increasingly) online, are a common form of professional development. They aim to develop the pedagogical and reflective skills of participants through regular meetings centered on conversations about teaching and learning.ResultsThe tool presented in this paper, the Taxonomy of Opportunities to Learn (TxOTL), provides a structured approach to making sense of the dynamic interactions that occur during faculty learning community meetings. The origins and development of the TxOTL are described, followed by a detailed presentation of the constructs that make up the TxOTL: communicative approach used in a conversation, the concepts developed, and the meeting segment category. The TxOTL characterizes the learning opportunities presented by a faculty learning community conversation through describing the content of the conversation as well as how participants engage in the conversation. Examples of the tool in use are provided through an application to a faculty online learning community serving instructors of a physical science curriculum. A visual representation used to compactly display the results of applying the taxonomy to a meeting is detailed as well. These examples serve to illustrate the types of claims the TxOTL facilitates.ConclusionsThe TxOTL allows one to examine learning opportunities available to a faculty learning community group, analyze concept development present in their conversations, track change over time in a given group, and identify patterns between meeting segment categories and communicative approaches. It is useful for researchers as well as facilitators of these STEM faculty professional development groups. The taxonomy is most applicable to faculty (online) learning communities, with limited use for workshops and K-12 professional development contexts.

Building Cultures of Collaboration That Promote Instructional Change

<strong>Background:</strong> National calls to improve engineering education have prompted educators to explore ways to implement change. We need a better understanding of how research-based instructional strategies (RBISs) are sustainably adopted among faculty. Prior studies indicated that developing collaborations and a shared vision among faculty facilitates adoption, but few studies demonstrate successful efforts to create these collaborations. <strong>Purpose/Hypothesis:</strong> We seek to understand the process of developing a culture of collaboration among STEM faculty interested in implementing instructional innovation in engineering and to characterize the process of how the STEM faculty community of practice (COP) develops and functions. To achieve this, we investigated two research questions: 1) How do participants describe their experience in the SIIP – a program designed to promote and support collaborations around teaching innovation? 2) What patterns and themes emerge in the experiences of participants? <strong>Design/Method:</strong> We applied an exploratory phenomenological approach, using semi-structured interviews with 12 STEM faculty members across academic ranks. Interviews were analyzed using a thematic analysis process with multiple rounds of coding. <strong>Results:</strong> The participants’ experiences revealed that social capital and shared accountability support building a collaborative culture among engineering faculty engaged in instructional innovation. The community of practice provided organizational support and resources to STEM faculty that enabled community behaviors including knowledge sharing about teaching. <strong>Conclusions:</strong> Building a community of practice among STEM faculty for education reform requires invested faculty, structural support by the institution (e.g., instructional initiatives programs), and a collaborative environment. Recommendations are provided for building a local version of a STEM faculty learning community committed to improving instruction.

Analyzing a faculty online learning community as a mechanism for supporting faculty implementation of a guided-inquiry curriculum

BackgroundAdoption and use of effective, research-based instructional strategies (RBISs) for STEM education is less widespread than hoped. To promote further use of RBISs, the propagation paradigm suggests that developers work with potential adopters during the development process, and provide ongoing support after adoption. This article investigates the impact of a faculty online learning community (FOLC) as a professional development mechanism for supporting faculty adopting a research-based curriculum. A FOLC uses video conference technology and online platforms to connect geographically dispersed faculty with similar backgrounds (e.g., physics faculty) and supports their teaching development. In the context of a specific FOLC, this article seeks to determine the outcomes the FOLC achieves, and how.ResultsAnalysis of a FOLC meeting identified opportunities for rich, complex social interaction centered on the research-based curriculum. By functioning as a sounding board for ideas, a space to share experiences, a source of affective support, and a venue for troubleshooting, the FOLC mediates the achievement of a range of outcomes related to implementation of the curriculum. Survey results indicate that members feel a sense of community in the FOLC and that it provides encouragement through teaching challenges. Further results indicate participants’ increased confidence in using the curriculum; familiarity with the curriculum structure and content; increased knowledge of pedagogical techniques; reflection on teaching practices in the curriculum; and use of pedagogical techniques aligned with the curriculum’s core principles. Emerging evidence supports more distal outcomes, including student learning, persistence in using the curriculum, reflection in teaching practice across courses taught, and use of research-based pedagogy in other courses.ConclusionsThe propagation paradigm emphasizes the need for ongoing support for adopters of RBISs. The FOLC model provides participating faculty with ongoing support through participation in a community and is an effective support mechanism for adopters of a research-based curriculum. In this study, FOLC members are increasing their knowledge and use of pedagogical techniques in the curriculum-specific course and beyond. This is facilitated by the opportunities in the FOLC for troubleshooting, idea sharing, and receiving encouragement through challenges. This model has the potential to support adopters of additional educational innovations.

Job-embedded professional development: implementing co-teaching practices in general education classrooms

ABSTRACT This article presents the findings of an empirical research project that focuses on the job-embedded professional development of special education in relation to a school district initiative for greater inclusive practices and the reduction of segregated and ‘pull out’ special education services. The professional development comprised the coaching and modelling of research-based instructional strategies and co-teaching practices wherever the special education teacher was, which was typically in a general education classroom. The co-teaching approaches included one teach/one observe, one teach/one assist, alternative teaching, parallel teaching, station teaching, and teaming, as described by Friend [2015. “Welcome to Co-teaching 2.0.” Educational Leadership 73 (4): 16]. Job-embedded professional development (JEPD) is a relatively new approach for improving co-teaching practices between general and special educators in the United States. This approach was adopted by a school district in West Central Florida serving approximately 70,000 students (pre-kindergarten to 12th grade). Participating elementary, middle, and high school special educators’ reflections on the co-teaching instructional models are examined. The sources for this study include a collation of observed co-teaching approaches and teacher survey responses. Overall, the JEPD appeared to increase the use of co-teaching practices and was well-received by the teachers across all settings.

Using Marzano's Research-Based Instructional Strategies for Developing EFL Student Teachers' Academic Reading Skills and their Metacognitive Awareness of the Reading Strategies

The purpose of the present study was four-fold: (a) to develop student teachers' EFL academic reading skills and their metacognitive awareness of the reading strategies; (b) to examine whether their metacognitive awareness of the EFL reading strategies could predict their EFL academic reading skills, (c) to explore the differences between good and poor academic readers in terms of their strategy use, and (d) to investigate whether there is a gap between their perceived use of reading strategies and their actual use. About 92 participants from second-year student teachers enrolled in the English Section at the Faculty of Education, Benha University were randomly assigned into two groups: an experimental group [N=46] and a control group [N=46]. Adopting the mixed research method for data collection and analysis, two instruments were used for the quantitative analysis: two equivalent forms of the EFL academic reading test with an analytical scoring rubric and the survey of the metacognitive awareness of reading strategies. Several instruments were used to adhere to the qualitative analysis. The main result of the study showed that Marzano's instructional strategies were effective in developing both EFL academic reading skills and metacognitive awareness of the reading strategies. Moreover, it was recommended to integrate them into teacher education programs استخدام استراتيجيات مارزانو Marzano التعليمية القائمة على الأبحاث لتطوير مهارات القراءة الأکاديمية والوعي وراء المعرفي لاستراتيجيات القراءة في اللغة الإنجليزية کلغة أجنبية لدي الطلاب المستخلــــص باللغــــة العربيــــة تهدف الدراسة الحالية إلي تحقيق أربعة أغراض: (أ) تطوير مهارات القراءة الأکاديمية والوعي وراء المعرفي باستراتيجيات القراءة باللغة الإنجليزية کلغة أجنبية لدي الطلاب المعلمين، (ب) معرفة ما إذا کان الوعي وراء المعرفي باستراتيجيات القراءة يمکن أن يتنبأ بمهارات القراءة الأکاديمية باللغة الإنجليزية کلغة أجنبية لدي الطلاب المعلمين، (ج) اکتشاف الاختلافات بين القراء الأکاديميين الجيدين والضعفاء من حيث استخدامهم لاستراتيجيات القراءة، و(د) التحقق مما إذا کانت هناک فجوة تصورات الطلاب المعلمين حول استخدامهم لاستراتيجيات القراءة وبين استخدامهم الفعلي لها. وقد تم تقسيم 92 طالبا بالفرقة الثانية بقسم اللغة الإنجليزية بکلية التربية، جامعة بنها بشکل عشوائي إلي مجموعتين: مجموعة تجريبية ]ن = 46[ ومجموعة ضابطة ]ن = 46[. وقد اعتمدت الدراسة علي طريقة البحث المختلط لجمع وتحليل البيانات، فتم استخدام أداتين للتحليل الکمي، وهما اختبار القراءة الأکاديمية في اللغة الإنجليزية کلغة أجنبية (نسختين متکافئتين) مع مقياس تصحيح تحليلي له، واستبيان للوعي وارء المعرفي باستراتيجيات القراءة. کما تم استخدام عدة أدوات للتحليل الکيفي. أظهرت النتائج فعالية استراتيجيات مارزانو التعليمية في تنمية مهارات القراءة الأکاديمية والوعي وارء المعرفي باستراتيجيات القراءة . وأوصت الدراسة بدمج تلک الاستراتيجيات ببرامج إعداد مارزانو