Landscape Ecology Research Research Articles

Using normative scenarios in landscape ecology

The normative landscape scenario is one of many types of scenario methods that are used by landscape ecologists. We describe how normative landscape scenarios are different from other types and how these differences create special potential for engaging science to build landscape policy and for exploring scientific questions in realistic simulated landscapes. We describe criteria and a method for generating normative scenarios to realize this potential in both policy and landscape ecology research. Finally, we describe how the method and criteria apply to an interdisciplinary project that proposed alternative scenarios for federal agricultural policy and related futures for agricultural watersheds in Iowa, USA.

LANDSCAPE ECOLOGY AND FOREST MANAGEMENT: DEVELOPING AN EFFECTIVE PARTNERSHIP*

Landscape ecologists have been eager to make their research applicable to forest management. We examine how landscape ecology has contributed to shaping the way forest management is currently practiced. Landscape ecology research in forested ecosystems can be divided into two general areas: (1) the study of fragmentation issues, which focuses on the effects of forest fragmentation on species conservation; and (2) the development of landscape projection models, which focuses on patch dynamics and the effects of spatial arrangement of patches on ecosystem processes. Fragmentation issues have become priorities in the minds of forest managers, but research to date has over-emphasized the effects of landscape structure on species conservation. We suggest that the research focus should move toward the study of threshold effects of landscape change on the relative influence of habitat loss and habitat configuration on species conservation in forest-dominated landscapes. Landscape projection models are rapidly be...

Landscape Ecology and Forest Management: Developing an Effective Partnership

Landscape ecologists have been eager to make their research applicable to forest management. We examine how landscape ecology has contributed to shaping the way forest management is currently practiced. Landscape ecology research in forested ecosystems can be divided into two general areas: (1) the study of fragmentation issues, which focuses on the effects of forest fragmentation on species conservation; and (2) the development of landscape projection models, which focuses on patch dynamics and the effects of spatial arrangement of patches on ecosystem processes. Fragmentation issues have become priorities in the minds of forest managers, but research to date has overemphasized the effects of landscape structure on species conservation. We suggest that the research focus should move toward the study of threshold effects of landscape change on the relative influence of habitat loss and habitat configuration on species conservation in forest-dominated landscapes. Landscape projection models are rapidly becoming important tools in forest management planning, and they hold great promise as a means to bring landscape ecologists and forest managers together. The ability to produce future landscapes under different management scenarios and to compare these to landscapes produced by natural disturbance regimes will help to focus both managers and scientists on understanding the key interactions among human activities, landscape features, and ecological processes.

Assessing ecological risks at US Department of Energy facilities using methods borrowed from landscape ecology and habitat suitability analysis. Part I. Analysis of historical aerial photography and maps

Ecological risks are inherently spatial, and the consideration of scale is critical to all aspects of the ecological risk assessment process. Analysis of alterations in land use and habitat quality and quantity in relation to historical, continuing, and future US Department of Energy (USDOE) operations may be as important as assessing impacts resulting from the release of chemical contaminants into the environment. We examined several contributions from basic research and development in landscape ecology and habitat suitability analysis and their potential application in assessing ecological risks at USDOE facilities. Methods from landscape ecology are presented in this manuscript, while habitat suitability analysis methods and landscape-level ecological models are presented in a second manuscript. The Oak Ridge Reservation (ORR) in eastern Tennessee and the Savannah River Site (SRS) in western South Carolina were selected as representative USDOE facilities for this study. Changes in land use were analysed for sites within the ORR and the SRS using historical aerial photography, which was digitized in order to quantify the change over time using indices that describe landscape structure. A time series of changes in land use and habitat at a larger spatial scale was analysed by digitizing US Geological Survey (USGS) quadrangle maps (124,000) using two scales of resolution for an area of East Tennessee that included the ORR; landscape ecological indices were calculated, and USGS quadrangle maps that included areas inside and outside USDOE boundaries were compared. Historical alterations in land use and habitat type were successfully reconstructed for sites within the USDOE facilities at a small scale using aerial photography and at a large spatial scale for a USDOE facility and the surrounding landscape using a time series of USGS quadrangle maps; both data sources provided useful information. The percentage of the landscape occupied by a particular patch type, the number of patches of a particular type, the total number of patch types, the total number of patches, the total edge, the meanpatch fractal dimesion, and the contagion index were landscape ecological indices that adequately described the change over time that has occurred on the ORR and SRS. The methods presented in this manuscript could effectively be used in ecological risk assessments both at USDOE facilities and non-USDOE lands.

Landscape structure analysis of Kansas at three scales

Recent research in landscape ecology has sought to define the underlying structure of landscape pattern as quantified by landscape pattern metrics. One method used by researchers to address this question involves statistical data reduction techniques. In this study, principal components analysis (PCA) was performed on 27 landscape pattern metrics derived from a Kansas land cover data base at three spatial resolutions: 30 m, 100 m, and 1 km. A hexagonal sampling grid was used to subset the landscape and FRAGSTATS software was used to calculate landscape pattern metrics. The PCA reduced the number of variables from 27 to 5. A five-component PCA solution explained between 81 and 89% of the variation in the data set. The components were interpreted as overall landscape texture, patch shape and size, cropland and grassland class-specific metrics, patch interspersion, and a nearest neighbor attribute. These five dimensions were identified at each resolution level. The first component was stable throughout the resolution levels, whereas the order of importance changed for the latter four components. That most components consistently appeared at each resolution level supports the use of the same subset of pattern metrics for landscape monitoring in the region at different resolutions. The individual metrics emerging as most important were similar to those noted in other research and include the modified Simpson’s diversity index, the area-weighted mean patch fractal dimension, the interspersion and juxtaposition index, and the largest patch index for grasslands.

Angewandte Landschaftsökologie : der Weg von der Forschung in die Praxis

Abstract. The difference between «landscape ecology» and «applied landscape ecology» is the path taken between research work and practical application. Therefore applied landscape ecology includes more than research and development. It works with scientific findings, modeis, methods, concepts etc. until they are ready for practical application.The corresponding Steps are basic research, calibration and Validation, model design, conceptualisation, decision making, development of models for practical application, pilot application and routine application. Four examples from the fields of landscape budget, conservation of natural resources, land use planning and landscape development present current concerns, methodical concepts, procedures, modeis and typical results of applied landscape ecological research. The various examples are classified methodically, their content is briefly commented and illustrated with maps. A look into the future summarises the basic elements of applied landscape ecological research: functions and processes, pro blems of probability and heterogeneity, knowledge based modelling at a high integration level and GIS as a working instrument.

A holistic model for landscape ecology in practice: the Swedish survey and management of ancient meadows and pastures

The survey conducted under the Ancient Meadows and Pastures project represents a new approach in nature conservation in Sweden, where natural and cultural heritage values were inventoried and analysed in an integrated holistic approach between 1985 and 1997. The model for the survey, developed jointly by researchers and planners, is composed of four steps: methodological development of data collection; national survey and regional ranking; national analysis; and applications. This paper describes the conceptual model, the methodological development and national analysis. The method development is composed of strategic selection of criteria for natural and cultural values, development of classification systems, development of techniques for aerial photo interpretation, methods for fieldwork and description, evaluation and ranking. The data collection is based on interpretation in stereo pairs of colour infrared (CIR) aerial photographs with selection of potentially valuable meadows and pastures which are inventoried and checked in the field for cultural-historical nature types, cultural elements, vegetation types and selected indicator species of vascular plants. They are also described from a holistic landscape ecological perspective, integrating the cultural and biological components within the entire landscape and, finally, ranked for nature conservation into four classes. The evaluation emphasises botanical values together with long-term continuity in land-use and management, underpinned with cultural components. The national analysis showed that nearly 200,000 ha of ancient meadows and pastures are well managed and of high value. They are distributed among more than 17,000 objects and 22 cultural-historical nature types. Most were pastures (98%). The result is not only increased knowledge of the distribution of ancient meadows and pastures and a high number of well-managed pasture landscapes throughout Sweden, but also a change in attitude among farmers, towards more positive attitudes to nature conservation and biodiversity and understanding of the cultural landscape. This project has had an important influence, because it is used in regional nature conservation work, has formed the principal basis of several thousands of management agreements with farmers, is used in policy work in the national nature protection plan and in the biodiversity action plan. The database also provides a good foundation for research in cultural landscapes, biodiversity and landscape ecology.

Application of an Ecology-Based Methodology for Paleopopulation Studies

Current paleodemographic studies are insufficient for the examination of smaller, non-urban populations. An ecological methodology, based on research and methods in landscape ecology, may be used to analyze landscape resources availability, thereby allowing analysis of populations that are too small for examination using existing paleopopulation study methods. This new methodology, through its development of a Human Suitability Index (HSI), is applied to the Interior Salish populations of the northern Columbia Plateau of British Columbia, inclusive of the Okanogan, Lillooet, Thompson, and Shuswap tribes. The resulting application demonstrates the accuracy and inaccuracy of population counts variously applied to the area and suggests future uses in other non-urban areas in the context of maximum population size, percentage of population size achieved, location of settlement, and migration and growth factors.

Stability analysis of a nonhomogeneous Markovian landscape model

Quantitative methods to analyze spatial patterns of landscapes are an important area of research in landscape ecology. Nonhomogeneous Markov models can be used to represent landscape dynamics; however, methods to analyze the stability of these models are needed. A method for determining the stability is developed in this paper, and its application to a model of vegetation dynamics in southern Texas savanna is also given. Using Lyapunov stability theory, the theorem that the family of these transition matrices will be stable if the symmetric matrices associated with the vertex matrices have matrix measures less than two has been proved. The results of the stability analysis accord well with current understanding of vegetation dynamics in the southern Texas landscape.

The landscape ecological approach in bird conservation: integrating the metapopulation concept into spatial planning

In The Netherlands, fragmentation of (semi)natural ecosystems is regarded as a major nature conservation problem. The current Dutch Nature Conservation Policy Plan proposes a spatial network consisting of existing nature reserves, nature redevelopment areas and corridor zones. One of the objectives is to stop the assumed decline of biodiversity due to fragmentation. In this contribution we show that breeding birds are affected by the spatial distribution of their habitat. We also show how problems due to fragmentation can be solved by integrating landscape ecological research data Into planning procedures. Fragmented bird populations show metapopulation characteristics, dependent on the degree of fragmentation. This can be concluded from pattern studies, in which presence or absence patterns are correlated with spatial characteristics. Metapopulation dynamics were used, and the frequency of local extinction and of recolonization were related to size of habitat patches and spatial position in the landscape. The conclusion is that, depending on the spatial scale, landscape fragmentation is a threat to birds. On the basis of empirical data, statistical and metapopulation models are being developed to be used to evaluate spatial planning scenarios and to support decision making about which scenario is closest to the planning aims.

Restoration of Landscape Structure Altered by Fire Suppression

There is increasing interest in applying landscape ecological research to the management of wildlands, particularly regarding the negative effects of fragmentation and the benefits of corridors. Patch‐producing large disturbances, such as fires and floods, produce a spatial mosaic structure in landscapes to which many species are sensitive. Management of the spatial structure of the patch mosaic has seldom been an explicit concern, however, in part because of insufficient knowledge about bow this spatial structure is affected by alterations in the disturbance regime. Yet the patch mosaic structure of many landscapes has been altered by disturbance control (such as fire suppression), and there is substantial interest in restoring natural disturbance regimes in some wildland landscapes. It has been proposed that, in landscapes subjected to decades of fire suppression, simple reinstatement of the natural fire regime may lead to adverse effects because fuel buildup during fire suppression may result in unusually large fires. It has also been proposed that the use of small prescribed fires may be an effective approach to restoration of landscapes subjected to fire suppression. Here I use a spatial GIS‐based simulation model to analyze the effects of reinstating a natural fire regime in the Boundary Waters Canoe Area, Minnesota, after 82 years of fire suppression. The simulation experiment suggests that suppression can be expected to significantly alter landscape structure, but landscape structure can generally be restored within 50–75 years by reinstating the natural fire regime. Unusually large fires would probably hasten the restoration of landscape structure, while small prescribed fires will not restore the landscape but instead will produce further alteration.

GIS: More than just a pretty face

Most landscape ecologists have heard about Geographic Informat ion Systems (G1S), and many are in the process of acquiring a GIS, but there is still an aura of mystery, skepticism, and misconception about what a GIS is and what it can do. Some people have adopted an ' E m p e r o r ' s New Clothes ' stance on GIS, perceiving it as just another elaborate (and expensive) way to draw pretty maps. A GIS ' s graphic display capability is certainly one of its most aesthetic properties, so it is not surprising that talks illustrating GIS use are often peppered with attractive, colorful slides. But GIS is more than just a pretty face. Its power for landscape ecology lies in its ability to manipulate and analyze spatially distributed data. While communi ty and ecosystem ecology has traditionally focused on the central tendency of observations made at carefully selected points in space, landscape ecology focuses on the heterogeneous distribution of ecological resources, populations, and processes over space and time. The GIS ' s spatial and temporal analysis capabilities therefore make it an indispensible tool for landscape ecology research. The types of questions typically addressed are:

A review of models of landscape change

Models of landscape change may serve a variety of purposes, from exploring the interaction of natural processes to evaluating proposed management treatments. These models can be categorized as either whole landscape models, distributional landscape models, or spatial landscape models, depending on the amount of detail included in the models. Distributional models, while widely used, exclude spatial detail important for most landscape ecological research. Spatial models require substantial data, now more readily available, via remote sensing, and more easily manipulated, in geographical information systems. In spite of these technical advances, spatial modelling is poorly developed, largely because landscape change itself is poorly understood. To facilitate further development of landscape models I suggest (1) empirical multivariate studies of landscape change, (2) modelling of individual landscape processes, (3) explicit study of the effect of model scale on model behavior, and (4) ‘scaling-up’ results of studies, on smaller land areas, that have landscape relevance.

Input Management of Production Systems

Nonpoint sources of pollution, which are largely responsible for stressing regional and global life-supporting atmosphere, soil, and water, can only be reduced (and ultimately controlled) by input management that involves increasing the efficiency of production systems and reducing the inputs of environmentally damaging materials. Input management requires a major change, an about-face, in the approach to management of agriculture, power plants, and industries because the focus is on waste reduction and recycling rather than on waste disposal. For large-scale ecosystem-level situations a top-down hierarchical approach is suggested and illustrated by recent research in agroecology and landscape ecology.

Future directions in landscape ecology research

Future directions in landscape ecology research