Central Asian Republics Research Articles

Русский язык в Республике Узбекистан: страницы истории и современность

2023 has been declared the year of the Russian language in the CIS and it is no coincidence. It is the CIS countries and, above all, the republics of Central Asia that determine the existence of the Russian language outside the borders of the Russian Federation. The authors of the article talk about the appearance of the Russian language in Uzbekistan and highlight the problems of its functioning at the present time, the measures taken to solve them.

Pakistan and Central Asian Republics: Cooperation and Opportunities -Trade and Energy corridors

After the collapse of the Soviet Union, natural resource-rich Central Asia, located in the heart of Asia, became an arena of struggle for sphere of influence between global and regional players, the competition between which continues and affects the security situation in Central Asia. The purpose of this report is to identify the main problems and prospects of cooperation between Pakistan and Central Asia, including in the context of the current dynamics of the situation in Afghanistan. The following methods were used in the research of this topic: systemic, historical, comparative, and interdisciplinary approaches. The report examines the Pakistani factor and its peculiarities in Central Asia. An attempt was made to assess the Pakistani factor in Central Asia, the drivers of its policy and its changing role in recent years. The advantages and disadvantages of Pakistan in building its policy toward the countries of the Central Asian region are analyzed. Particular attention is paid to energy and transport-logistics cooperation between Islamabad and Central Asian countries.

Trade policies in Central Asia after EAEU enlargement and after Russian WTO accession: regionalism and integration into the world economy revisited

ABSTRACT This paper revisits the question of choice between regionalism and multilateralism in trade relations of Central Asia introduced by Pomfret (2005). Our study is motivated by a significant restoration of economic links between the former Soviet republics following Russian accession to the World Trade Organization (WTO), the creation of the Eurasian Economic Union (EAEU), and the formation of new trade ties with Vietnam, Iran, and Serbia. Above all, there have been substantial commitments made by the three Central Asian republics of Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, and Uzbekistan toward a multilateral system under the WTO rules. To this end, we apply a multi-region gravity model with interdependent trade flows using bilateral trade data of Tajikistan and Uzbekistan to study the ex-ante effects of economic integration with various bilateral, plurilateral, and multilateral partners. Our findings indicate the existence of considerable gains if the aforementioned economies would ascend to the EAEU in comparison to integration with China or Iran. We also document the presence of shared economic links between Tajikistan, Central Asia, and Turkey.

Formation of the borders of Kazakhstan: discussions and solutions in the first twenty years of soviet power

The issues of the formation of the administrative borders of Kazakhstan with the republics of Central Asia and the RSFSR are considered within the frame of rapidly changing military and socio-political situation. Priorities in the delimitation, taking into account the size of territories, population and education status, are identified. Attention is drawn to the relationship of the national republics with the union bodies, neighboring autonomies, other territories and regions of Russia. The evolution of the delimitation process, the transformation of the boundaries and the basic criteria used in this process, the forms of demarcation and approaches to their implementation are shown. The main and additional criteria of delimitation of the borders of the subjects of the RSFSR and the USSR were determined. The continuity of the principles of administrative division in the pre-war period with the modern principles of interstate delimitation and the influence of the processes of delimitation on the evolution of international law are shown. A certain interconnection between the dynamics of administrative-territorial division, including the formation of autonomies on a national basis, which took place after the February and October revolutions, was traced, but qualitative differences between pre- and early Soviet approaches were also recorded. It is concluded that it was in the pre-war period that the main contours of the current borders of the Central Asian states were established, and the demarcation process itself played a great role in stabilizing the situation in the region.

Bioclimatic zoning as a prerequisite for architectural and structural design, urban and area-wide planning

Introduction. Factors of nature and climate were analyzed using bioclimatic criteria of environmental assessments made in within the framework of urban planning during warm seasons. Territories of republics, located in Central Asia and southern Kazakhstan, were considered as southern specimen areas; they have both plain and complex mountainous terrains, and their climatic and bioclimatic conditions make them similar to equatorial countries. The author chose a method for assessing bioclimatic indices; they take into account the response of the thermal status of a person to the environment, which is a rele­vant task of architectural and structural design and area-wide planning in southern countries with hot climates.
 Materials and methods. This research project is based on a comprehensive methodology for studying, analyzing and summarizing meteorological factors, provided by local meteorological stations, and reference data from the leading research institutes of hydrometeorology. These data are further processed by the software package to identify specific small and large microclimatic and bioclimatic differences between large areas. The methodology also determines the degree of comfort of a thermal state of a person in urban bioclimatology.
 Results. A new area of research was identified to study the response of the thermal state of a person to the environment: the bio-climatological assessment of environments. Bioclimatic zoning of republics in Central Asia and southern Kazakhstan was performed to classify the bioclimatic conditions in these environments according to their livability, taking into account values of meteorological indices during warm seasons. Bioclimatic differences between territories, cities, and excerpts from area development documents were identified for the purpose of bioclimatic zoning and division into districts. Maps of districts were designed to make bioclimatic forecasts of territories for the purpose of architectural and structural design, as well as urban planning.
 Conclusions. The research is relevant for territories and cities with hot climates. Methodological fundamentals of bioclimatic zoning in Central Asia and southern Kazakhstan, coupled with classified bio-meteorological indices, will serve as a prere­quisite for purposeful and rational use of territories in the region; they will allow evaluating its recreational potential and planning the construction of residential complexes, public and industrial buildings and structures that ensure maximum comfort and convenience at minimum costs. The classification of bioclimates is presented; it is based on thermal characteristics of climates as well as responses from the human thermoregulatory system during excessively hot summer periods. These responses are needed to characterize the thermal state of a person during periods of greatest heat stresses and radiation loads.

Structure formation of hyper-compacted and modified concrete

Production of axisymmetric products -pressure and non-pressure pipes, rings, wells, bridges and drainage elements represents one of the main branches of construction industry in water and wastewater industry of Uzbekistan and Central Asian republics. However, positive tendencies of its development are only emerging and still do not meet the potential of progressive, competitive and economical modern technology, capable of providing significant shifts in reduction of resource intensity of new products, expansion of raw material base of construction industry and involvement of technogenic products into its balance, as well as solution of important economic and environmental problems. Prospects for further development of high-efficiency tubular goods production and scientific and technological progress of their production are largely determined by the importance of regularities and methods of controlling technological processes of structure formation with regard to given high level of product quality and criteria of resource intensity of production. In this regard, the analysis of general regularities of material structure formation in the complex process of hypercompaction and cementations modification in axisymmetric concrete is of primary importance.

Foreign direct investment and international trade across the former Soviet economies: What do we know after 30 years of research?

Aim/purpose – This paper surveys three decades of empirical literature on foreign direct investment (FDI) and international trade across the former Soviet economic space. In this survey, we outline the current state of research, discuss data limitations, and iden- tify topics for further studies. Design/methodology/approach – The methodology used in this study is a systematic literature review. Multiple databases were searched, including Google Scholar, IDEAS (RePEc), JSTOR, Web of Science, and others. In total, 59 papers published between 1990 and 2023 were analyzed. Findings – Our findings are severalfold. First, we highlight severe data collection prob- lems related to foreign equity and trade outside the Baltics, Ukraine, Russia, and some Central Asian Republics (CARs). As a result, we point out the limited availability of studies that use contemporary data and cover important economic events, such as the European accession of the Baltics, the formation of new preferential trade agreements, and economic re-integration centered around Russia, and Ukraine’s political stability. Research implications/limitations – This study should assist researchers in identifying prospective research directions in post-communist economic research. The main limita- tions of this survey are i) the total number of papers surveyed (59), ii) the focus on em- pirical studies, and iii) the specific geographical area considered. Originality/value/contribution – Despite the critical role of FDI and trade in transition- al economies, plenty of relevant topics have remained undiscovered (e.g., the relation- ship between outward FDI and profit shifting). To the best of our knowledge, no system- atic survey has been done on these two areas of research. Keywords: Foreign direct investment, international trade. JEL Classification: F13, F15, F23, P33

Secondary salinization of soils and ways to prevent downstream of the Amu Darya

In the history of irrigated agriculture there are many cases when due to severe soil salinity the yield was so low that it did not justify the costs incurred for cultivation of crops. Such lands were classified as unsuitable and were left without use for crops. Lands from suitable ones turned into unsuitable ones and were also often left out of use for irrigated crops, thus, among the old irrigated land masses there were many fallow lands, fallow fields and other vacant lands. The growth of salinity of irrigated soils in the Central Asian republics in the last 30-35 years has become almost ubiquitous. Both old and new irrigation systems bear heavy losses from growing soil salinity. More often secondary salinization in irrigated soils begins to appear even at relatively deep groundwater (3.5-4) in the form of seasonal (during summer) spot salinization of soils on microrelief elevations, on spots of irrigated fields bare from cultural vegetation.

Kabul and the Kremlin: Russia's Evolving Foreign Policy Towards the Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan

Since mid-2021, Moscow has adhered to a foreign policy vis-à-vis the Taliban referred to here as “muted diplomacy”. Russia has not officially recognized the Taliban, but the Kremlin maintains trade relations with the newly reestablished Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan. From Moscow’s perspective, it is prudent to engage with the Taliban, for there is no other actor that can exert political authority within the war-torn country. Yet the Taliban also plays an important role with regards to Russia’s regional ambitions pertaining to Central Asia. In considering how the Russo-Ukraine War has undermined Moscow’s standing among the Central Asian Republics, Russia seeks to preserve its hegemony, partially by restricting the “Stans” potential to acquire geopolitical maneuverability vis-à-vis Taliban-controlled Afghanistan. Consequently, Russia’s evolving foreign policy towards the Taliban is grounded in delaying other nearby states’ normalization of relations with Kabul in the hopes of maintaining its regional stature, as well as in engaging with the sole entity in Afghanistan that stands a chance of averting a state collapse, redolent of the 1990s.

Sukcesja na urzędzie prezydenta w republikach Azji Środkowej. Rozwiązania normatywne i praktyka

The following study is devoted to normative and practical aspects of the presidential succession in post-Soviet republics: Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan, and Kazakhstan in the period of 2006–2022. In these Central Asian countries personalized, superpresidential models of government have emerged, what makes the transfer of the presidential power critically important for the further regime existence. As the following paper shows, in all mentioned states such procedure is regulated by the constitutions, but in some cases the transfer of power was not in line with the legal provisions. The paper concludes that the Central Asian republics have established some model of presidential succession what confirms, that these nations are consolidated, “militant autocracies” that guarantee themselves continuity and resistance.

Экономические отношения Кыргызстана и КНР: история, проблемы, перспективы

The Kyrgyz Republic and the countries of Central Asia are key territories on the path to the implementation of the Silk Road Economic Belt within the framework of the Chinese One Belt, One Road project. After the collapse of the USSR, the entire post-Soviet space for the rapidly growing Chinese economy became even more important as a sales market, and the Central Asian republics, including Kyrgyzstan, turned into key, transit territories within the framework of the One Belt, One Road project. Based on the statistical data of the General Administration of Customs of China and Kyrgyzstan, as well as legal documents, the article examines the dynamics, features and prospects of bilateral trade and economic cooperation. The authors identified the main stages of interaction between the two countries, identified the problems and opportunities for trade and economic cooperation, which has been rapidly developing since the end of the last century. Bilateral dialogue in the trade and economic sphere has good prospects. To date, China has firmly taken the place of the main trading partner of Kyrgyzstan. However, despite the positive dynamics, a number of negative phenomena have been revealed in trade and economic relations. These phenomena were primarily associated with the consequences of the pandemic, the growth of Sinophobia, etc. At present, in all countries of Central Asia, including Kyrgyzstan, Chinese initiatives have both supporters and skeptics, as well as those who fear possible negative consequences in the implementation of Chinese projects. The authors note that there are fears in connection with the expansion and strengthening of the influence of the Celestial Empire in the region, which may have the consequences of territorial concessions to a strong neighbor in exchange for investment, fears associated with economic and migration expansion. But objectively, cooperation between the People’s Republic of China and Kyrgyzstan is gaining momentum, which can bring both benefits as well as certain challenges and risks.

Specifics of Economic Transformation of Kyrgyzstan and Tajikistan in Post-Soviet Period

The article analyzes the specifics of economic development and economic transformation of the Central Asian mountain republics (Kyrgyzstan and Tajikistan) in the post-Soviet period. The author has revealed that, on the one hand, the mountain republics during the period of market reforms developed in the general trend of other post-Soviet and post-socialist states in general, on the other hand, the socio-economic achievements of Kyrgyzstan and Tajikistan were among the least successful among countries transitioning from a planned administrative-command economy to a market economy. In particular, it was found that many economic sectors in the mountain republics have remained depressed over the thirty-year period, which have grown rapidly in other post-Soviet states: such as the mining industry (coal mining, uranium mining, oil and gas extraction) and many sub-sectors of agriculture. The republics currently have an unbalanced, more primitive employment structure, not only in comparison to post-industrial countries, but also to other post-Soviet states (in Kyrgyzstan and Tajikistan a much higher share of the total economically active population is occupied by people working in agriculture). Among the more high-priority sectors of the economies under consideration were gold mining (primarily due to the development of one of the largest gold deposits, Kumtor, in Kyrgyzstan) and wholesale trade (Kyrgyzstan in the post-Soviet period became one of the largest reexporters of goods from China to the Eurasian Economic Union). Hydropower has been identified as one of the most promising sectors for the development of the mountain republics’ economies (thanks to the huge hydropower resources of Kyrgyzstan and Tajikistan).

ПРИНАДЛЕЖИТ ЛИ ПАКИСТАН ЮЖНОЙ АЗИИ?

Analyzing the question of Pakistan belonging to the South Asian region in the past and present, the author touches upon the problem of relations between states and regions. According to the author’s conclusion, Pakistan fits into the framework of South Asia, which in colonial times was most often called the Indian subcontinent. At the same time, the Islamic Republic of Pakistan occupies a marginal, limitrophe position in relation to the core of South Asia, the Republic of India. Pakistan stands in a similar position as a border state in relation to the larger and heterogeneous region of the Near and Middle East. The author also notes the growing role of the country as a transit zone connecting China with the states of Arabia and the Persian Gulf and opening ways to the World Ocean for the Republics of Central Asia and Afghanistan, and through them for Russia. The historical trend revealed in the article is the evolution of Pakistan from a purely South Asian country to a limitary country, located on the frontier of a number of key geopolitical areas.

«МИ ЗБЕРІГАЛИ ДВІСТІ РОКІВ СВОЮ МОВУ, СПІЛКУЮЧИСЬ ЛИШЕ ВДОМА МІЖ СОБОЮ...»

The purpose of the publication is to represent, through the prism of people's fate, the tragic history of the Meskhetian Turks, who were deported to the republics of Central Asia by the totalitarian communist government in 1944 from their historical homeland – Meskhetia in southern Georgia. In 1989, due to an inter-ethnic conflict artificially created by the soviet authorities, they were forced to flee and leave their homes for the second time. Having settled mainly in Donbas, they again became forced migrants, this time due to the beginning of the russian-Ukrainian war in 2014 and the large-scale invasion of the russian federation into Ukraine in 2022. It is emphasized that, despite everything, for many centuries Meskhetian Turks have preserved their customs and culture. It must be emphasized that the soviet past had a negative impact on the development of the community. The respondents provided important information about the deportation, the crimes of the soviet and russian authorities against the Meskhetian Turks, their life and daily life in the territories of Georgia, Central Asia (Uzbekistan, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan), Ukraine (Donbas), the attitude of the local population, education, religion, peculiarities of preservation of customs, traditions and culture, quantity and many other things.

«МИ ЗБЕРІГАЛИ ДВІСТІ РОКІВ СВОЮ МОВУ, СПІЛКУЮЧИСЬ ЛИШЕ ВДОМА МІЖ СОБОЮ...»

The purpose of the publication is to represent, through the prism of people's fate, the tragic history of the Meskhetian Turks, who were deported to the republics of Central Asia by the totalitarian communist government in 1944 from their historical homeland – Meskhetia in southern Georgia. In 1989, due to an inter-ethnic conflict artificially created by the soviet authorities, they were forced to flee and leave their homes for the second time. Having settled mainly in Donbas, they again became forced migrants, this time due to the beginning of the russian-Ukrainian war in 2014 and the large-scale invasion of the russian federation into Ukraine in 2022. It is emphasized that, despite everything, for many centuries Meskhetian Turks have preserved their customs and culture. It must be emphasized that the soviet past had a negative impact on the development of the community. The respondents provided important information about the deportation, the crimes of the soviet and russian authorities against the Meskhetian Turks, their life and daily life in the territories of Georgia, Central Asia (Uzbekistan, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan), Ukraine (Donbas), the attitude of the local population, education, religion, peculiarities of preservation of customs, traditions and culture, quantity and many other things.

Development of wastewater treatment technology with purpose of their reuse in process of obtaining cotton pulp

Today, an urgent problem is developing a technology for producing cotton cellulose from low-grade linters with the rational use of water resources. This issue is especially relevant for the Republics of Central Asia. Also, the development of a technology for the production of cotton pulp would provide an acute shortage of pulp and paper, protect the environment, reduce energy costs, reduce water and chemical costs, and rationally use available raw materials. The paper presents the results of studies on the possibility of cleaning waste liquor and wash water for reuse in obtaining cotton cellulose. The object of the study is the cooking solution, spent liquor, used water after pulping and washing, their sanitary characteristics, and the quality indicators of the products obtained. The discoloration of wastewater, the residual amount of sodium hydroxide, the change in the optical density of the cooking solution, and the chemical composition of the waste liquor and washing water after discoloration were experimentally studied.

Динамика численности среднеазиатских этносов в Томской области (конец XIX – первые десятилетия XXI в.)

The dynamics of the number of Central Asian migrants in the Tomsk region in the late nineteenth century to the first decades of the 21st century is considered. Based on the population censuses of the Russian Empire, the USSR and the Russian Federation, the author comes to the conclusion that immigrants from the Central Asian regions of the country in a small number (about 110 people) were registered in Tomsk and Tomsk County already in the 19th century. In Soviet times, the number of immigrants from Central Asia and Kazakhstan had a constant tendency to increase, their number it amounted to 7.7 thousand people in 1989. In the post-Soviet period, the number of representatives of titular ethnic groups of the Central Asian republics fluctuated: in 2002 – 4015, in 2010 – 8211, in 2020 – 6877 people, not all of them belonged to the titular ethnic group. Thus, the share of representatives of Central Asian peoples in the population of the region did not exceed 0.8 %.

The July 2015 Debris flow in Barsem, Western Pamir (GBAO) Tajikistan: Description and causes

Tajikistan is a landlocked country in the Central Asia republics of the former Soviet Union. Tajikistan is prone to many natural disasters. Most commonly in Tajikistan, mudflows occur in the South and North parts of the country. The 2015 Barsem mudflow caused significant damage to the entire village, a territory of the Western Pamir Gorno-Badakhshan Autonomous Region (GBAO), Tajikistan; fortunately, no human casualties. The total volume of debris flow is about 4.9 million m3. Typically, precipitation above 15-20mm per day in arid areas causes mudflow. Accumulated water during the intensive melting of the glacier and snowfields was saturated with water by the moraine sediment blocking its paths (which served as a dam for the lake that formed). Several studies indicate that mudflow triggers excess pore pressure or liquefaction of the soil; consequently, sudden and high shear resistance losses eventually generate a mudflow [5][6]. Although mudflows and landslides occur annually, after the 2015 Barsem mudflow, it becomes clear that the intensity and frequency of new events are increasing. Consequently, the author strongly believes establishing and implementing an early warning system can be essential.

Orta Asya'da Sınır Ötesi Su Kaynaklarının Paylaşım Sorunları

ABSTRACT 
 
 The main water resources in Central Asia are the two major transboundary rivers of Syr Darya and Amu Darya. Territorial distribution status of shared waters from these rivers and increasing demand for water in both upper reaches and downstream countries lead to competition between water use for hydropower generation and for irrigation contributing to serious consequences for the economy of these countries. This also raises the political tension between the upper reaches and downstream countries. Therefore, efficient and sustainable management of water resources in the region remains highly important for economic, political and environmental cooperation between the Central Asian Republics. When Central Asian Republics gained their independence after the breakup of the old Soviet Union, the problem of sharing the transboundary water resources aggravated due to the collapse of the old single centralized model of management. The essence of the problems with sharing transboundary waters in the region is that the goals for water use in the region predominantly differ from one country to another. This contradiction is rooted in differing national interests of the republics’ water consumption priorities, with some countries more dependent on irrigated agriculture while hydropower generation is more priority for others. This paper attempts to look at the issues with joint water use, management of transboundary water resources by Central Asian countries and points out the main causes of the problem.

A Review of China-Kazakhstan Economic Relationship during the 21st Century

Economic diplomacy promotes a state's national interest through economic apparatuses. China has efficiently applied this craft in Central Asia and other parts of the world through infrastructure development projects which in turn would make China better off in energy, economy and security. The Central Asian Republic of Kazakhstan is the largest land-locked country in the world which shares a long border with China. This former Soviet Republic has pivotal strategic potential due to its location and massive natural reserves. Since China's energy needs are ever-increasing because of its enormous industrial capacity so she is preferably considering Kazakhstan for energy partnership. Two out of six economic corridors of "Belt & Road Initiative" (BRI) of China are also passing through Kazakh Republic. These considerations make Kazakhstan specifically and Central Asia generally a centre of China's attention. In that perspective, the instant study investigates China's economic policy towards Kazakhstan. A qualitative method of reasoning is followed to find the results. It reveals that Kazakhstan has obtained a central role in fulfilling the energy requirements of China.