Republic Of The Marshall Islands Research Articles

Evaluation of Pacific Islands Early Childhood Caries Prevention Project: Republic of the Marshall Islands

This communication reports an outcomes evaluation of the Pacific Islands Early Childhood Caries Prevention Project. The evaluation includes children in three conditions: a) topical fluoride varnish three times per school year; b) varnish plus twice-per-day toothbrushing; and c) intervention 2 plus three-times-per-day xylitol containing gummy bear snacks at school and home visits to encourage parental involvement. For this evaluation, groups 2 and 3 have been combined. One year after project implementation, mean decayed, extracted, or filled primary teeth was 10.3 [standard deviation (SD)= 4.3] teeth for group 1, and 8.2 (SD = 4.0) teeth for the combination of groups 2 and 3 (P < 0.05). Twenty-four percent of group 1 had cavitated lesions in any permanent molar versus 12.8 percent in groups 2 and 3 combined (P > 0.05). Evaluation confirms the outcome of a program including both in-school twice-daily toothbrushing with fluoridated toothpaste and frequent applications of fluoride varnish.

Assessing the Relative Performance of Microwave-Based Satellite Rain-Rate Retrievals Using TRMM Ground Validation Data

Abstract Spaceborne microwave sensors provide critical rain information used in several global multisatellite rain products, which in turn are used for a variety of important studies, including landslide forecasting, flash flood warning, data assimilation, climate studies, and validation of model forecasts of precipitation. This study employs 4 yr (2003–06) of satellite data to assess the relative performance and skill of the Special Sensor Microwave Imager [SSM/I (F13, F14, and F15], Advanced Microwave Sounding Unit [AMSU-B (N15, N16, and N17)], Advanced Microwave Scanning Radiometer for Earth Observing System [AMSR-E (Aqua)], and the Tropical Rainfall Measuring Mission (TRMM) Microwave Imager (TMI) in estimating surface rainfall based on direct instantaneous comparisons with ground-based rain estimates from the TRMM Ground Validation (GV) sites at Kwajalein, Republic of the Marshall Islands (KWAJ), and Melbourne, Florida (MELB). The relative performance of each of these satellite estimates is examined via comparisons with space- and time-coincident GV radar-based rain-rate estimates. Because underlying surface terrain is known to affect the relative performance of the satellite algorithms, the data for MELB were further stratified into ocean, land, and coast categories using a 0.25° terrain mask. Of all the satellite estimates compared in this study, TMI and AMSR-E exhibited considerably higher correlations and skills in estimating–observing surface precipitation. While SSM/I and AMSU-B exhibited lower correlations and skills for each of the different terrain categories, the SSM/I absolute biases trended slightly lower than AMSR-E over ocean, where the observations from both emission and scattering channels were used in the retrievals. AMSU-B exhibited the least skill relative to GV in all of the relevant statistical categories, and an anomalous spike was observed in the probability distribution functions near 1.0 mm h−1. This statistical artifact appears to be related to attempts by algorithm developers to include some lighter rain rates, not easily detectable by its scatter-only frequencies. AMSU-B, however, agreed well with GV when the matching data were analyzed on monthly scales. These results signal to developers of global rainfall products, such as the TRMM Multisatellite Precipitation Analysis (TMPA) and the Climate Data Center’s Morphing (CMORPH) technique, that care must be taken when incorporating data from these input satellite estimates to provide the highest-quality estimates in their products.

Availability of High-Quality TRMM Ground Validation Data from Kwajalein, RMI: A Practical Application of the Relative Calibration Adjustment Technique

Abstract Since the Tropical Rainfall Measuring Mission (TRMM) satellite launch in November 1997, the TRMM Satellite Validation Office (TSVO) at NASA Goddard Space Flight Center (GSFC) has been performing quality control and estimating rainfall from the KPOL S-band radar at Kwajalein, Republic of the Marshall Islands. Over this period, KPOL has incurred many episodes of calibration and antenna pointing angle uncertainty. To address these issues, the TSVO has applied the relative calibration adjustment (RCA) technique to eight years of KPOL radar data to produce Ground Validation (GV) version 7 products. This application has significantly improved stability in KPOL reflectivity distributions needed for probability matching method (PMM) rain-rate estimation and for comparisons to the TRMM precipitation radar (PR). In years with significant calibration and angle corrections, the statistical improvement in PMM distributions is dramatic. The intent of this paper is to show improved stability in corrected KPOL reflectivity distributions by using the PR as a stable reference. Intermonth fluctuations in mean reflectivity differences between the PR and corrected KPOL are on the order of ±1–2 dB, and interyear mean reflectivity differences fluctuate by approximately ±1 dB. This represents a marked improvement in stability with confidence comparable to the established calibration and uncertainty boundaries of the PR. The practical application of the RCA method has salvaged eight years of radar data that would have otherwise been unusable and has made possible a high-quality database of tropical ocean–based reflectivity measurements and precipitation estimates for the research community.

Better or worse? The role of solar photovoltaic (PV) systems in sustainable development: Case studies of remote atoll communities in Kiribati

The Republic of Kiribati, formerly known as the Gilbert Islands, is a Micronesian (One of the three groups of islands in the Pacific. The eight territories that make up Micronesia are Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands, Federated States of Micronesia, Republic of Kiribati, Republic of the Marshall Islands, Republic of Nauru, Republic of Palau, Territory of Guam and Territory of Wake Island. The other two groups of islands in the Pacific are Melanesia and Polynesia) country in the Pacific. The energy sources utilised in Kiribati include petroleum products, biomass, solar energy and wind power. Solar energy was introduced in Kiribati in the early 1980s (Wade H. Survey of RESCO projects – prepared for OPRET, Fiji Department of Energy, 2003; p. 36). Currently, it makes a very insignificant (less than 1%) contribution to the total annual primary energy supply (South Pacific Regional Environment Programme (SPREP). Pacific Islands Renewable Energy Project (PIREP) – Pacific Regional Energy Assessment (PREA) 2004. Kiribati national report, Vol. 5, 2005). Solar energy in Kiribati is used mostly in the form of solar photovoltaic (PV) technologies for the provision of lighting and electricity. This study examines the role of PV technologies in the sustainable development process in Kiribati, with particular reference to remote atoll communities. Initial results from on-site surveys carried out are reported in this paper. These surveys have sought to identify the reasons why people use or do not use PV systems.

Environment and development in the Republic of the Marshall Islands: Linking climate change with sustainable fisheries development

Abstract The Republic of the Marshall Islands (RMI) is a major custodian of one of the ocean's major natural resources: tuna. The commercial tuna fisheries sector is the most important economic sector in the RMI and is thus a substantial contributor to this tiny island nation's GDP. Tuna catch and its associated revenues has fluctuated in line with climatic events such as the El Niño/La Niña Southern Oscillation (ENSO) and, in the last decade, national fisheries development policies have begun to capitalize on the positive effects that ENSO warm events have had on the tuna populations. However, global warming is expected to have a significant impact on ENSO, and not necessarily in positive ways. This paper will focus on the relationship between environment and economic development in the RMI fisheries sector. In particular, the linkages between global warming and its effects on the tuna fisheries sector must be better understood and uncertainties accounted for so that impacts are appropriately addressed and integrated into sustainable fisheries development policies. Conclusions reached are that new fisheries development strategies that emphasize environmental‐based planning are required. The emerging ecosystem‐based approach to fisheries management is a start, as are the various international initiatives in furthering our understanding of the linkages between climate and ocean systems currently underway.

Comparison of the Scaling Characteristics of Rainfall Derived from Space-Based and Ground-Based Radar Observations

Abstract In view of the importance of tropical rainfall and the ubiquitous need for its estimates in climate modeling, the authors assess the ability of the Tropical Rainfall Measuring Mission (TRMM) precipitation radar (PR) to characterize the scaling characteristics of rainfall by comparing the derived results with those obtained from the ground-based radar (GR) data. The analysis is based on 59 months of PR and GR rain rates at three TRMM ground validation (GV) sites: Houston, Texas; Melbourne, Florida; and Kwajalein Atoll, Republic of the Marshall Islands. The authors consider spatial scales ranging from about 4 to 64 km at a fixed temporal scale corresponding to the sensor “instantaneous” snapshots (∼15 min). The focus is on the scaling of the marginal moments, which allows estimation of the scaling parameters from a single scene of data. The standard rainfall products of the PR and the GR are compared in terms of distributions of the scaling parameter estimates, the connection between the scaling parameters and the large-scale spatial average rain rate, and deviations from scale invariance. The five main results are as follows: 1) the PR yields values of the rain intermittence scaling parameter within 20% of the GR estimate; 2) both the PR and GR data show a one-to-one relationship between the intermittence scaling parameter and the large-scale spatial average rain rate that can be fit with the same functional form; 3) the PR underestimates the curvature of the scaling function from 20% to 50%, implying that high rain-rate extremes would be missed in a downscaling procedure; 4) the majority of the scenes (&amp;gt;85%) from both the PR and GR are scale invariant at the moment orders q = 0 and 2; and 5) the scale-invariance property tends to break down more likely over ocean than over land; the rainfall regimes that are not scale invariant are dominated by light storms covering large areas. Our results further show that for a sampling size of one year of data, the TRMM temporal sampling does not significantly affect the derived scaling characteristics. The authors conclude that the TRMM PR has the ability to characterize the basic scaling properties of rainfall, though the resulting parameters are subject to some degree of uncertainty.

Observed radar reflectivity in convectively coupled Kelvin and mixed Rossby‐gravity waves

Propagating disturbances in the tropical atmosphere exhibiting characteristics of linear equatorial waves have been shown to be “coupled” to convection. In some cases, a rain event at a specific location can be associated with a particular wave of sufficiently large amplitude. Rain events spanning three years at Kwajalein Atoll, Republic of the Marshall Islands, 8.72°N 167.73°E, are classified by associated wave type (i.e. Kelvin or mixed Rossby‐gravity (MRG)) using space‐time spectral‐filtered outgoing longwave radiation (OLR). Contoured frequency by altitude diagrams (CFADs) of radar for the classified dates were compared between the two groups. The Kelvin wave accumulated CFAD has a distribution shifted to lower reflectivities compared to MRG suggesting that Kelvin storms likely contain a larger fraction of stratiform to convective area compared to MRG storms.

Carotenoid content of different edible pandanus fruit cultivars of the republic of the Marshall Islands

As Vitamin A deficiency (VAD) is a serious problem in the Republic of the Marshall Islands (RMI), it is important to identify locally grown, acceptable sources of vitamin A. Pandanus fruit, a traditional Marshallese staple food, has a yellow-orange colouration suggesting substantial carotenoid content. However, few of the many Marshallese cultivars were previously analysed for nutrient content. Thus, this study was conducted in order to identify carotenoid-rich Marshallese pandanus cultivars that could be promoted to alleviate VAD. Ethnography was used to select cultivars and assess acceptability. Thirteen cultivars were analysed by two laboratories for α- and ß-carotene and other carotenoids using high-performance liquid chromatography. The cultivars contained a range of carotenoid levels (21–902 μg ß-carotene/100 g), with higher levels in cultivars having deeper yellow-orange coloured fruit; 10 cultivars had significant levels that meet estimated vitamin A requirements within normal consumption patterns. There was excellent agreement between the laboratories’ results. Pandanus has been increasingly neglected in recent years, but is still well liked and considered a Marshallese health food. The promotion of carotenoid-rich culturally acceptable pandanus cultivars could contribute to alleviating vitamin A, micronutrient, and chronic disease problems in the RMI and other Pacific contexts, particularly atoll islands, where pandanus is an important food.

Measles Transmission and Vaccine Effectiveness during a Large Outbreak on a Densely Populated Island: Implications for Vaccination Policy

The Republic of the Marshall Islands (RMI) is a South Pacific nation freely associated with the United States. In 2003, the RMI experienced the largest measles outbreak within the United States or its associated areas for more than a decade, although the reported coverage of 1-dose measles-mumps-rubella (MMR) vaccine was 80%-93%. The outbreak ended only after vaccination of >35,000 persons among a population of 51,000. Of outbreak cases, 41% were reported to have been previously vaccinated. We studied measles attack rates in RMI households to assess vaccine effectiveness and patterns of disease transmission. For the household secondary attack rate study, households were selected by convenience sampling of outbreak measles cases. The primary case was defined as the first person with measles in a household. Secondary cases were household members with measles onset 7-18 days after the primary case's rash onset. Vaccine effectiveness analysis was limited to children aged 6 months to 14 years, with vaccination status verified against written records. Seventy-two households were included in the study. The median household size was 11 persons, and the median number of persons per room was 5.5. Secondary cases were more likely than primary cases to be infants (46% vs. 13%; P=.03). MMR vaccine effectiveness was 92% (95% confidence interval [CI], 67%-98%) for 1 dose and 95% (95% CI, 82%-98%) for 2 doses. Measles vaccine effectiveness was high; thus, diminished effectiveness was not the main cause of the outbreak. In communities with high population density and household crowding, very high population immunity is needed to prevent measles outbreaks and to protect infants below the age of vaccination. This may require excellent implementation of a routine 2-dose measles vaccination strategy.

Measles outbreak in the Republic of the Marshall Islands, 2003

Measles is a highly contagious viral infection. Measles transmission can be prevented through high population immunity (>or=95%) achieved by measles vaccination. In the Republic of the Marshall Islands (RMI), no measles cases were reported during 1989-2002; however, a large measles outbreak occurred in 2003. Reported 1-dose measles vaccine coverage among children aged 12-23 months varied widely (52-94%) between 1990 and 2000. RMI is a Pacific island nation (1999 population: 50,840). A measles case was defined as fever, rash, and cough, or coryza, or conjunctivitis, in an RMI resident between July 13 and November 7, 2003. A vaccination campaign was used for outbreak control. Of the 826 reported measles cases, 766 (92%) occurred in the capital (Majuro). There were 186 (23%) cases in infants aged <1 year and 309 (37%) of cases in persons aged >or=15 years. The attack rate was highest among infants (Majuro atoll: 213 cases/1,000 infants). Among cases aged 1-14 years, 281 (59%) reported no measles vaccination before July 2003. There were 100 hospitalizations and 3 deaths. The measles H1 genotype was identified. The vaccination campaign resulted in 93% coverage among persons aged 6 months to 40 years. Interpretation Populations without endemic measles transmission can accumulate substantial susceptibility and be at risk for large outbreaks when measles virus is imported. 'Islands' of measles susceptibility may develop in infants, adults, and any groups with low vaccine coverage. To prevent outbreaks, high population immunity must be sustained by maintaining and documenting high vaccine coverage.

Ground Validation for the Tropical Rainfall Measuring Mission (TRMM)

Abstract An overview of the Tropical Rainfall Measuring Mission (TRMM) Ground Validation (GV) Program is presented. This ground validation (GV) program is based at NASA Goddard Space Flight Center in Greenbelt, Maryland, and is responsible for processing several TRMM science products for validating space-based rain estimates from the TRMM satellite. These products include gauge rain rates, and radar-estimated rain intensities, type, and accumulations, from four primary validation sites (Kwajalein Atoll, Republic of the Marshall Islands; Melbourne, Florida; Houston, Texas; and Darwin, Australia). Site descriptions of rain gauge networks and operational weather radar configurations are presented together with the unique processing methodologies employed within the Ground Validation System (GVS) software packages. Rainfall intensity estimates are derived using the Window Probability Matching Method (WPMM) and then integrated over specified time scales. Error statistics from both dependent and independent validation techniques show good agreement between gauge-measured and radar-estimated rainfall. A comparison of the NASA GV products and those developed independently by the University of Washington for a subset of data from the Kwajalein Atoll site also shows good agreement. A comparison of NASA GV rain intensities to satellite retrievals from the TRMM Microwave Imager (TMI), precipitation radar (PR), and Combined (COM) algorithms is presented, and it is shown that the GV and satellite estimates agree quite well over the open ocean.

The vascular plants of Majuro Atoll, Republic of the Marshall Islands

The vascular plants of Majuro Atoll, Republic of the Marshall Islands

A Whole Body Counting Facility in a Remote Enewetak Island Setting

The U.S. Department of Energy (DOE) has recently implemented a series of strategic initiatives to address long-term radiological surveillance needs at former U.S. test sites in the Marshall Islands. The plan is to engage local atoll communities in developing shared responsibilities for implementing radiation protection programs for resettled and resettling populations. As part of this new initiative, DOE agreed to design and construct a radiological laboratory on Enewetak Island, and help develop the necessary local resources to maintain and operate the facility. This cooperative effort was formalized in August 2000 between the DOE, the Republic of the Marshall Islands (RMI), and the Enewetak/Ujelang Local Atoll Government (EULGOV). The laboratory facility was completed in May 2001. The laboratory incorporates both a permanent whole body counting system to assess internal exposures to 137Cs, and clean living space for people providing 24-h void urine samples. DOE continues to provide on-going technical assistance, training, and data quality review while EULGOV provides manpower and infrastructure development to sustain facility operations on a full-time basis. This paper will detail the special construction, transportation and installation issues in establishing a whole body counting facility in an isolated, harsh environmental setting.

Site specific cancer incidence in the Republic of the Marshall Islands

There is a paucity of data about cancer in the Republic of the Marshall Islands (RMI), a former U.S. Trust Territory. This study provides the first comprehensive data analysis on the incidence rates for certain cancers in the RMI. The Nuclear Claims Tribunal (NCT) of the RMI provided archival data on all decedent requests that were presented for personal injury compensation through December 16, 1996. Medical records of these individuals were reviewed to obtain information to determine cancer incidence. Age-adjusted incidence rates by site and gender were calculated and compared with U.S. rates. There were significant differences in the age-adjusted, site specific cancer incidence rates during the period from 1985 to 1994 between the RMI and the United States. The RMI had higher age-adjusted incidence rates for lung (m = 3.8x, f = 3x), cervix (f = 5.8x), gastrointestinal tract (m = 1.9x, f = 8.5x), liver (m = 15.3x, f = 40x), breast (f = 1.4x), urinary tract (f = 5.8x), oral (m = 3.4x, f = 1.5x), and thyroid (f = 7.2x) cancers. The RMI NCT data provided base-line information that has important implications for future cancer prevention and control in this population. The calculated incidence rates are alarming, because these rates are probably under-estimations of the true cancer incidence rates. Contributing factors to the higher incidence rates may include environmental and life-style factors, such as radiation exposure, alcohol and tobacco abuse, vitamin A deficiency, and high rates of hepatitis B and sexually transmitted diseases. Further investigations into cancer rates and factors associated with increased incidence in the RMI are necessary. Cancer 1998;83:1821-1824. © 1998 American Cancer Society.

Dose assessment activities in the Republic of the Marshall Islands.

Dose assessments, both retrospective and prospective, comprise one important function of a radiological study commissioned by the Republic of the Marshall Islands (RMI) government in late 1989. Estimating past or future exposure requires the synthesis of information from historical data, results from a recently completed field monitoring program, laboratory measurements, and some experimental studies. Most of the activities in the RMI to date have emphasized a pragmatic rather than theoretical approach. In particular, most of the recent effort has been expended on conducting an independent radiological monitoring program to determine the degree of deposition and the geographical extent of weapons test fallout over the nation. Contamination levels on 70% of the land mass of the Marshall Islands were unknown prior to 1994. The environmental radioactivity data play an integral role in both retrospective and prospective assessments. One recent use of dose assessment has been to interpret environmental measurements of radioactivity into annual doses that might be expected at every atoll. A second use for dose assessment has been to determine compliance with a dose action level for the rehabilitation of Rongelap Island. Careful examination of exposure pathways relevant to the island lifestyle has been necessary to accommodate these purposes. Examples of specific issues studied include defining traditional island diets as well as current day variations, sources of drinking water, uses of tropical plants including those consumed for food and for medicinal purposes, the nature and microvariability of plutonium particles in the soil and unusual pathways of exposure, e.g., that which might be associated with cooking and washing outdoors and inadvertent soil ingestion. A study on the prevalence of thyroid disease is also being conducted and the geographic pattern of disease may be useful as a bioindicator of the geographic pattern of exposure to radioiodine. Finally, an examination is underway of gummed film, fixed-instrument, and aerial survey data accumulated during the 1950's by the Health and Safety Laboratory of the U.S. AEC. This article gives an overview of these many different activities and a summary of recent dose assessments.

Ecotourism and nature conservation: A definition with some recent developments in Micronesia

This paper presents a narrow definition of ecotourism which requires a two-way link between ‘ecotourism’ and nature conservation. Examples are given of how ecotourism might be used to support nature conservation directly in Micronesia. Case studies of attempts to establish such a relationship are given for Wotho Atoll (Republic of the Marshall Islands) and for the village of Enipein in the State of Pohnpei (Federated States of Micronesia). Prospects are discussed as well as problems which need to be overcome. A brief account is given of other problems facing Micronesia in the light of dramatic increases in tourism. The paper concludes with some suggested guidelines for the establishment of ecotourism.

Differential representation of human skeletal remains in eroded and redeposited coastal deposits: A case study from the Marshall Islands

A historical cemetery on Majuro Atoll, Republic of the Marshall Islands, was partially washed away during an exceptional seasonal high tide. The osteological analysis of the human remains washed out by the tides showed that the anatomical representation of the bones found on the shoreline is distinctly skewed, caused by the erosion of the graves by wave action and the differential transport of bones by waves and currents.

Seroepidemiological characterization of a syphilis epidemic in the Republic of the Marshall Islands, formerly a yaws endemic area.

The annual numbers of reported cases of syphilis in the Republic of the Marshall Islands (RMI) increased from none in 1983 to more than 600 in 1989, suggesting a large outbreak of syphilis. Much of the increase resulted from expanded serological screening. The apparent outbreak of syphilis, therefore, may have been partly the result of increased surveillance or, since the RMI was formerly a yaws endemic area, possibly due to a resurgence of yaws. To address this problem and better characterize the epidemic, we analysed results from a 1989/90 Ministry of Health Services mass serological screening on Majuro Atoll, the main population centre. Serum specimens from 9160 people (86% of residents aged 15-44 years) on Majuro were screened with the rapid plasma reagin (RPR) card test; we repeated the RPR and performed a confirmatory microhaemagglutination assay for Treponema pallidum-specific antibodies (MHA-TP) on a sample of serum specimens. To estimate the seroprevalence of syphilis, we also tested a sample of RPR nonreactive specimens by MHA-TP. Among people less than 45 years of age, total (11.5%) and high-titre (5.2%) seropositivity rates were highest in the 20-24 year age group, as was MHA-TP seroprevalence (15.9%). These results suggested that a large outbreak of syphilis was responsible for the observed seroreactivity. Cumulative incidence modelling and comparisons with the results of a previous serosurvey conducted in 1985 suggested that the duration of the syphilis epidemic was approximately 10 years and that incidence had not increased appreciably since 1985.

Regional Discontinuities of Planning Objectives in the Republic of the Marshall Islands

One of the most fundamental challenges facing the Republic of the Marshall Islands is changing regional organization, with population and economic resources becoming increasingly concentrated at two urban centers. Present national planning objectives focus upon developing the means to accommodate these centers. But such development strategies often encounter difficulties, for centralization on the order currently found in the Marshalls has neither historic nor sociocultural precedent. In this study regional change in the Marshall Islands is examined in terms of demographic development, and regional evolution assessed through complementary statistical measures of spatial autocorrelation, point-to-point temporal association, and spatio-temporal association. It is concluded that the current regional imbalance in population and human resources in the Marshalls represents a significant break from past trends which may well be unsustainable. Alternative regional planning strategies are suggested which appeal to the historic and sociocultural foundations of the area.

Bank of Hawaii v. Balos

Plaintiff bank, incorporated under the laws of the state of Hawaii, brought an action in the United States District Court for the District of Hawaii against defendants, residents and citizens of the Republic of the Marshall Islands (RMI). One of the defendants, Imata Kabua, moved to dismiss the complaint for lack of subject matter jurisdiction on the ground that diversity of citizenship did not exist because defendants were not citizens of a “foreign state” within the meaning of 28 U.S.C. §1332(a)(2). The district court (per King, J.) denied the motion and held that diversity jurisdiction exists because the RMI, although technically retaining membership in the Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands (TTPI), has de facto become a foreign state.