Captive Reptiles Research Articles

Molecular evidence of Monocercomonas and Acanthamoeba in the feces of captive reptiles

Reptiles are frequently kept as pet animals. They are considered as important reservoirs of protozoa with veterinary-medical significance. At a reptile farm in Ireland, fecal samples were collected from 98 captive reptiles, representing 43 species of three orders (Squamata, Testudines, and Crocodylia). After DNA extraction, all samples were screened by conventional PCRs, targeting the ribosomal small subunit (SSU) RNA and alpha-tubulin genes of trichomonads and SSU RNA gene of Acanthamoeba spp. One leopard gecko (Eublepharis macularius) was positive for a not yet reported species/genotype of the genus Monocercomonas, different from M. colubrorum. Various Acanthamoeba genotypes were detected in six reptilian species, i.e., Acanthamoeba genotype T11 in Eunectes notaeus and Heloderma suspectum/horridum; genotype T4 in Varanus exanthematicus, Chlamydosaurus kingii, and Macrochelys temminckii; and the genotype T13 in Iguana iguana. Some of these amoeba species might have clinicopathological significance in both humans and animals. Our findings highlight the importance to monitor pathogenic protozoa in pet as well as wildlife reptiles, as a source of possible infection for animals and humans living nearby.

Automatic identification of intestinal parasites in reptiles using microscopic stool images and convolutional neural networks.

Captive environments trigger the propagation and multiplication of parasites among different reptile species, thus weakening their immune response and causing infections and diseases. Technological advances of convolutional neural networks have opened a new field for detecting and classifying diseases which have shown great potential to overcome the shortcomings of manual detection performed by experts. Therefore, we propose an approach to identify six captive reptiles parasitic agents (Ophionyssus natricis, Blastocystis sp, Oxiurdo egg, Rhytidoides similis, Strongyloides, Taenia) or the absence of such parasites from a microscope stool images dataset. Towards this end, we first use an image segmentation stage to detect the parasite within the image, which combines the Contrast Limited Adaptive Histogram Equalization (CLAHE) technique, the OTSU binarization method, and morphological operations. Then, we carry out a classification stage through MobileNet CNN under a transfer learning scheme. This method was validated on a stool image dataset containing 3616 images data samples and 26 videos from the six parasites mentioned above. The results obtained indicate that our transfer learning-based approach can learn a helpful representation from the dataset. We obtained an average accuracy of 94.26% across the seven classes (i.e., six parasitic agents and the absence of parasites), which statistically outperformed, at a 95% confidence level, a custom CNN trained from scratch.

Egg retention in wild-caught [i]Python bivittatus[/i] in the Greater Everglades Ecosystem, Florida, USA

Retention of eggs in oviducts beyond the normal oviposition period is a common problem for captive reptiles, but the occurrence of egg retention in wild populations is largely unknown. The Burmese python (Python [molurus] bivittatus; Kühl 1820) is an oviparous snake native to south-eastern Asia that is now established in southern Florida. From 2011–2019, invasive Burmese pythons were opportunistically removed from Everglades National Park and Big Cypress National Preserve, humanely euthanised, and necropsied to determine reproductive condition. A total of 258 females of reproductive size were found to exhibit various stages of oviposition which generally aligned with purported annual reproductive timing. However, we encountered five pythons during the post-ovulatory period (Aug–Feb) showing signs of recent oviposition with retained eggs. Most of these cases comprised a small number of retained eggs, likely representing some portion of the total clutch. Because this condition is nearly absent in wild animal literature, our observations suggest retained eggs in wild snakes may be more common than previously assumed, possibly slowing or otherwise impacting population growth. However, we recognise that for an invasive species like the Burmese python in Florida, the egg retention rate may be higher in the non-native range compared to the native range due to maladaptation to novel habitats or environmental conditions. Additional research is needed to determine the exact causes of egg retention and investigate the implications for population dynamics on this and other snake species. Keywords: invasive species, dystocia, snakes, Burmese, reproduction

Nutritional Content of Adult Norway Rats for Small Carnivores’ Feeding

Rats are the natural diet of many free-ranging carnivores. They are also fed to small carnivore mammals, raptor birds, and reptiles in captivity as a sole or partial diet, however, little is known about the nutrients that a rat can provide as animal feed. This study aimed to determine the nutritional content of the whole captive-bred Norway rats. A total of 12 randomly selected weaned male and female Wistar Norway rats were fed ad libitum with a local dry dog food diet. The rats were weighed weekly until an average weight of 300 g was reached. Biochemical and mineral analyses were carried out for each rat. The results of the study showed significant differences between male and female rats in terms of growth rate, crude protein, total fat, and calcium concentrations. Males presented a faster growth rate and reached the desired weight in around half the time (6 weeks), compared to females (13 weeks). Moreover, males had a higher percentage of crude protein (23.57%) on a fed matter basis, calcium (2.61%), and phosphorus (0.98%). Females showed higher total fat (13.92%) and lower crude protein (19.49%), calcium (0.54%), and phosphorus (0.47%), compared to males. The results of this research may be used to determine whether a whole rat can provide all the necessary nutrients to carnivore animals commonly kept in captivity. Present findings indicated that rats could provide the necessary nutrients, however, if given as a sole diet, they could not be enough to supply the nutritional requirements of animals in the long term.

Distribution of Salmonella spp. and serovars isolated from captive reptiles in four zoos of the Zoological Park Organization, Thailand, between 2017 and 2018

Distribution of Salmonella spp. and serovars isolated from captive reptiles in four zoos of the Zoological Park Organization, Thailand, between 2017 and 2018

Obesity prolongs induction times in reptiles

Obesity is common in captive reptiles, and reptiles are increasingly popular as companion animals and in physiological research. Obesity may present a challenge during surgical procedures using inhalation anaesthesia, as the long induction time due to the low reptilian metabolism may increase anaesthetic accumulation in the adipose tissues. This study investigated the impact of obesity on induction and recovery times from inhaled anaesthesia. The temporal change in the partial pressure of isoflurane in different tissues was predicted using a multi-compartment model. Furthermore, as right-to-left shunting can delay anaesthetic uptake and washout, we included an assessment of the combination of cardiac shunting and obesity. The model predictions indicate a clear increase in time to reach 90% equilibration of administered anaesthetic in the brain (T90) of obese non-shunting (lean 47 min, obese >100 min) and shunting (lean 81 min, obese >100 min) reptiles. The combination of obesity and shunting doubled the time to acquisition of mean anaesthetic concentration (a measure used to plan anaesthesia) from 8 min to 19 min. Adipose blood flow highly affected whether the body type had an impact on induction time, with low adipose blood flow abolishing the effect of body type. As T90 was never reached within 100 min with both the obese reptiles, it was not possible to conclude on the effect of obesity on recovery times within this study. Care should therefore be taken when anaesthetising obese reptiles for surgical purposes, to ensure adequate anaesthetic depth is attained, and recovery monitored closely.

Antimicrobial Resistant Salmonella in Chelonians: Assessing Its Potential Risk in Zoological Institutions in Spain.

Salmonella is mostly noted as a food-borne pathogen, but contact with chelonians has also been reported as a source of infection. Moreover, high levels of antimicrobial resistance (AMR) have been reported in Salmonella isolated from wild and captive reptiles. The aim of this study was to assess the occurrence of Salmonella AMR carriage by chelonians admitted to two zoological institutions in Spain, characterizing the isolates to assess the Salmonella AMR epidemiology in wildlife. To this end, 152 chelonians from nine species were sampled upon their arrival at the zoological nuclei. Salmonella identification was based on ISO 6579-1:2017 (Annex D), isolates were serotyped and their AMR analysed according to the EU Decision 2013/652. Moreover, the genetic relationship of the isolates was assessed by pulsed-field gel electrophoresis (PFGE). Results showed 19% (29/152) of the chelonians positive to Salmonella, all of them tortoises. For all isolates, 69% (20/29) were resistant and 34% (10/29) multidrug-resistant (MDR) strains. PFGE clustered isolates according to the serovar, confirming a low genetic diversity. In conclusion, this study shows a high presence of MDR Salmonella strains in tortoises at their entry into zoological nuclei. This condition highlights the need to establish Salmonella detection protocols for the entry of animals into these centres.

Coagulation testing in green iguanas (Iguana iguana) with development of prothrombin time assays using reptile and avian thromboplastin.

Captive reptiles often present with clinical signs suggestive of a clotting disorder or severe illness that can induce or exacerbate a coagulopathy. However, coagulopathies in reptiles are difficult to characterize due to lack of species-appropriate reagents to perform coagulation tests. The objective of this study was to develop screening tests to evaluate the extrinsic and common pathways of coagulation in green iguanas (Iguana iguana). Reptile and avian thromboplastin, extracted from reptile and avian brains, respectively, were used to initiate coagulation in prothrombin time (PT) assays and commercially available reagents were used to determine Russell's viper venom time, thrombin time, and fibrinogen using the Clauss method. Coagulation assays were performed on citrate-anticoagulated plasma from 18 healthy green iguanas. Results were summarized as median (minimum-maximum): PT (reptile thromboplastin), 34.8 seconds (27.1-42.1 s), PT (avian thromboplastin), 78.5 seconds (51.6-114.23 s), Russell's viper venom time, 56.15 seconds (18.4-79.7 s), thrombin time, 10 seconds (7.0-36.5 s), and fibrinogen, 258mg/dl (89-563.0) (2.58 [0.89-5.63g/L]). Commercial reagents can be used to evaluate the common pathway and fibrinogen; however, avian- or reptile-sourced thromboplastin is preferred for a reliable coagulation trigger to perform the PT assay and evaluate the extrinsic pathway.

Cryptosporidium in Leopard Gecko: A case report

The choice for so-called “unconventional” animals has grown a lot in recent times and reptiles have gained popularity as pets. The Leopard Gecko (Eublepharis macularius) has been much sought after for breeding in captivity, and is currently one of the most adopted lizards in the world. However, most reptiles in captivity are acquired illegally, without information related to management, which triggers the onset of diseases such as cryptosporidiosis. Cryptosporidium are obligate intracellular coccidia protozoa that reproduce in the epithelial cells of the small intestine of a host via the fecal-oral route and contamination in Eublepharis macularius can cause fatal diarrheal disease. In this study, we report the first case, in Brazil, of an extremely debilitated specimen of Leopard Gecko, which died and was referred for cadaveric examination at the pathology laboratory at Unb, with suspicion of Cryptosporidium. Based on the results obtained in the autopsy report, the animal's cause of death was due to parasitism caused by Cryptosporidium sp.

Fungal infection in free-ranging snakes caused by opportunistic species

Emerging infectious fungal diseases such as chytridiomycosis, caused by Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis and B. salamandrivorans in amphibians, or ophidiomycosis in reptiles ( Ophidiomyces ophiodiicola ), are major threats that can drive species or entire populations to extinction over a short period of time. Besides these well-documented pathogens, such diseases can be caused by numerous opportunistic fungal species that can target e.g. immunocompromised individuals from various species of vertebrates. In reptiles, opportunistic species are mainly documented in captive animals kept in inadequate conditions, but data remains scarce for wild individuals. In the present study, we isolated and genetically identified fungal species responsible of skin lesions in wild-caught smooth snakes ( Coronella austriaca ) during a field survey targeting endangered reptile species in Switzerland. A total of 18 fungal species were isolated and genetically identified from the lesions of the two wild-caught snakes and included several species known for being opportunistic pathogens in vertebrates and infecting mainly immunocompromised individuals, such as Alternaria infectoria and Rhodotorula spp. It is not possible to establish whether the snakes had such an issue. However, the exceptional wet and cold conditions experienced in spring 2021 might have trigger the infections. Indeed, high humidity has been recorded as a predisposing factor for mycoses in captive reptiles.

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Taylor Hartman Department of Organismal Biology, West Liberty University, West Liberty West Virginia, 26074. Incubation Temperature Effects on Hatchling False Water Cobras
 
 In herpetoculture (the keeping of reptiles in captivity), there are often discrepancies between breeders for which incubation temperature for eggs of different snake species is most effective. It is believed by some breeders that warmer temperatures cause eggs to hatch faster and colder temperatures will cause the eggs to incubate longer but produce more robust babies. This study looks at false water cobra (FWC; hydrodynastes gigas) hatchlings housed in two temperatures to determine the effects of incubation temperatures upon hatching. Clutches of eggs were split as evenly as possible between a warm temperature of 82F (27C) and a cold temperature of 77F (25C). Upon hatching, individuals were measured from snout-to-vent (SVL) and weighed for mass. 
 The experiment is still ongoing with other snake species, but results have been calculated for H. gigas. The warmer incubation temperature produced snakes that were lighter in mass than cold incubated eggs, but both temperatures produced snakes of the same SVL. Results were found using an unpaired t-test, which suggested that the mass difference of 3.4 grams between the incubator’s hatchlings’ weight was significant. However, a difference of 0.9 centimeters in length was not significant. 
 Those incubated in the warmer temperature hatched at a faster rate than those in the cold temperature. Fungal infections on the eggs and deformities were more apparent in the warmer eggs, while no fungi or deformities were found in the colder temperatures, despite the incubation substrate and accommodating materials coming from the same source. 

You can go your own way: No evidence for social behavior based on kinship or familiarity in captive juvenile box turtles

Behavioral interactions between conspecific animals can be influenced by relatedness and familiarity. Compared to other vertebrate taxa, considering such aspects of social behavior when housing captive reptiles has received less attention, despite the implications this could have for informing husbandry practices, enhancing welfare, and influencing outcomes of conservation translocations. To test how kinship and familiarity influenced social behavior in juvenile Eastern Box Turtles (Terrapene carolina), we reared 16 captive-born individuals under semi-natural conditions in four equally sized groups, where each group comprised pairs of siblings and non-siblings. Using separation distance between pairs of turtles in rearing enclosures as a measure of gregariousness, we found no evidence suggesting siblings more frequently interacted with one another compared to non-relatives over the first five months of life (β = −0.016, 95% CI: −0.117 to 0.084). Average pair separation distance decreased during this time (β = −0.146, 95% CI: −0.228 to −0.063) but may have been due to turtles aggregating around concentrated resources like heat and moist retreat areas as cold winter temperatures approached. When subjects were eight months old, we measured repeated separation distances between unique pair combinations in an experimental environment and similarly found no support for gregariousness (associations) being influenced by kinship or familiarity (β = −1.554, 95% CI: −9.956 to 6.848). Additionally, neither differences in body size between pairs of turtles (β = −22.289, 95% CI: −68.448 to 23.870) nor the five-minute time interval during the 90-minute trial (P ≥ 0.18) had any apparent effect on associations. Agonistic interactions between individuals were never observed. Encouragingly, based on our results, group housing and rearing of juvenile box turtles did not appear to negatively impact their welfare. Unlike findings for other taxa, including some reptiles, our results suggest strategically housing groups of juvenile T. carolina to maintain social stability may not be an important husbandry consideration or necessary when planning releases of captive-reared individuals for conservation purposes.

Virulence Profiles and Antibiotic Susceptibility of Escherichia coli Strains from Pet Reptiles.

Exotic reptiles are increasingly being bred as pets in many countries around the world, including Poland. However, the close contact between reptiles and their owners provides favourable conditions for the transmission of zoonotic pathogens. In this work, we examined E. coli isolates from 67 captive reptiles regarding their virulence, antibiotic susceptibility, phylogenetic affiliation, and genetic diversity. The incidence of E. coli was highest in snakes (51.6%, 16 isolates/31 samples), and slightly lower in turtles (44.4%, 8/18) and lizards (44.4%, 8/18). Genes encoding virulence factors were confirmed in 50% of isolates and the most common were the traT (37.5%, n = 12), fyuA (21.87%, n = 7), and irp-2 (15.62%, n = 5). The majority (71.87%, n = 23) of E. coli isolates were susceptible to all of the antimicrobial substances used in the study. Streptomycin resistance (21.87%, n = 7) was the most frequent, while resistance to other antimicrobial substances was sporadic. One strain (3.12%) was classified as multidrug-resistant. The presence of resistance genes (aadA, tetA, tetB, tetM, and blaTEM) was confirmed in 12.5% (n = 4) of the isolates. The majority (65.6%, n = 21) of E. coli isolates represented the B1 phylogenetic group. (GTG)5-PCR fingerprinting showed considerable genetic variation in the pool of tested isolates. The frequency of E. coli in reptiles is much lower than in mammals or birds. Due to the presence of virulence genes, characteristic of both intestinal pathogenic E. coli (IPEC) and extraintestinal pathogenic E. coli (ExPEC), reptilian strains of E. coli have pathogenic potential, and therefore people in contact with these animals should follow good hygiene practices.

Coproparasitologic survey of gastrointestinal parasites in a captive leopard geckos collection (Eublepharis macularius).

An increase in exotic animal imports has been noticed in the last decades worldwide. In this scenario, reptiles represent a quite popular group of interest as exotic pets. However, they can harbor pathogens that under inadequate captivity conditions can lead to disease expression and sometimes death. This study performed coprological analysis to investigate gastrointestinal parasites in a private collection of leopard geckos (E. macularius) relating the results with husbandry practices. Twenty-three geckos of 1 to 5years, weighing 30-65g, of both sexes were used. Freshly voided fecal samples were collected and centrifugal fecal float technique was performed using Sheather's sugar solution. 65,21% animals were positive for gastrointestinal parasites. No animal presented any clinical signs but previous loss was reported in the colony. Among affected animals, 93,3% presented oxyurid eggs, 33,33% Strongyloidea eggs and 26,66% presented mite eggs. Four animals were infected with both nematodes. The groups found are commonly reported in captive reptiles and, due to their direct life cycle, reinfection is common in captive animals. The husbandry practices proved to be insufficient and preventive measures such as quarantine were not adopted by the owner, which can compromise not only the reptiles health but also people who deal with them.

Dystocia in a wild Western Tiger Snake (Notechis scutatus occidentalis)

ABSTRACT Dystocia in reptiles is the retention of ova or foetuses within the female due to the failure of the female to complete parturition or oviposition. This disorder is commonly observed in captive reptiles, but has rarely been reported in wild reptiles. We observed a large internal obstruction in an adult female Tiger Snake captured as part of an ongoing population study. We failed to palpate out the object in the field, so we took the snake to a veterinary practice for professional assistance. All non-lethal methods of extracting the object were unsuccessful so we euthanised the specimen and post-mortem dissection revealed five mummified stillborn young lodged in a sealed reproductive tract. Reproductive abnormalities are frequent in Tiger Snakes and large proportions of litters can be comprised of unfertilised eggs, fertilised aborted eggs and stillborn young, yet none of these observations ever resulted in dystocia. It is interesting that this observation occurred in a snake from Herdsman Lake, Western Australia, where the Tiger Snake population is subjected to many anthropogenic stressors. We cannot determine what caused this case of dystocia but suspect it may have been caused by some sort of negative effect onset by the quality of the environment.

Fatal Disseminated Pseudomonas Aeruginosa Infection in a Captive Green Iguana (Iguana iguana)

Abstract Infections with various bacteria, especially gram-negative aerobes, are a well-recognized problem in captive cold-blooded animals with immunocompromised health status, or in those kept under poor conditions. Pseudomonas is one of the most represented genera. Here, we present a case of fatal disseminated infection caused by Pseudomonas aeruginosa in a captive green iguana kept at the “Pionirska dolina” Zoo in Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina. At necropsy, severe stomatitis, pneumonia, hepatitis and nephritis, accompanied with focally extensive dermatitis were observed. Histopathology revealed multifocal necrosis in various visceral organs. Culture and subsequent MALDI-TOF MS analysis were conducted to identify the isolate as P. aeruginosa. Antimicrobial susceptibility testing revealed a wide susceptibility of the isolate, however applied therapy was instilled too late in the presented case. This case demonstrates the significance of timely and accurate identification, and antimicrobial susceptibility testing of bacterial isolates implicated in the pathology of captive reptiles. The importance of monitoring the adequate environmental conditions (enclosure temperature, humidity and conformation), health status and possible clinical signs of illness are highlighted.

The Value of Black Soldier Fly Larvae (Hermetia illucens) as a Food Source: A Review

Black soldier fly (BSF) larvae, commonly marketed as Calciworms® (Timberline Fisheries Corp., Marion, IL, USA) or Phoenix Worms® (Insect Science Resource, LLC, Tifton, GA, USA), have become increasingly popular as a feeder insect for reptiles. Their popularity stems from the larvae's potentially calcium-rich nature, capable of surpassing a 2:1 calcium to phosphorus ratio without the need for dusting or gut loading. Despite their popularity, there has been limited research regarding their use as a food item for reptiles. They have, however, been studied extensively in food animal production as a less expensive source of animal protein and as part of an integrated waste management system. This review is meant to provide exotic animal veterinarians with evidenced-based research regarding the BSF's natural history, standard rearing practices, and the larvae's nutritive value in various animal systems, including captive reptiles. The authors hope this review will help veterinarians make better feeding recommendations for their reptile patients.

Does the provision of environmental enrichment affect the behaviour and welfare of captive snakes?

There is a wealth of evidence demonstrating the benefits of environmental enrichment across a range of different animal species. However, there is comparatively little such research into the effect of enrichment provision on captive reptiles. The aim of this study was therefore to ascertain if an increase in environmental complexity was beneficial to the behaviour and welfare of corn snakes (Pantherophis guttatus). The study used a combination of behavioural observations in the home enclosure, behavioural tests of anxiety, and a preference test. The snakes used the enrichment when it was available to them and enriched snakes showed changes in general behaviour reflective of improved welfare. However, the anxiety tests revealed few effects of enrichment provision on performance. In contrast, the snakes exhibited a strong preference for the enriched enclosure when given a choice. These findings suggest that the provision of environmental complexity to the enclosure was beneficial to the behaviour and welfare of captive corn snakes. We therefore recommend enrichment should be used when keeping captive snakes.

In vitro invasiveness and antimicrobial resistance of Salmonella enterica subspecies isolated from wild and captive reptiles.

Reptiles are carriers of Salmonella and can intermittently shed bacteria in their faeces. Contact with snakes and lizards is a source of human salmonellosis. Here, two populations of reptiles, wild and captive were surveyed for Salmonella. One hundred thirty wild-caught reptiles were sampled for Salmonella including 2 turtle, 9 snake and 31 lizard species. Fifty-two of 130 (40%) animals were Salmonella positive: one of 5 (20%) turtles, 7 of 14 (50%) snakes and 44 of 111 (39.6%) lizards. One hundred twenty-two reptiles were sampled from a zoo collection including 1 turtle, 6 tortoise, 9 lizard, 14 snake and 1 crocodile species. Forty-two of 122 (34.4%) captive reptiles sampled were Salmonella positive. Salmonella was most commonly isolated from lizards and snakes. Fifteen serotypes were identified from zoo and 19 from wild-caught reptiles and most were members of subspecies enterica (I), salamae (II), arizonae (IIIa) or diarizonae (IIIb). Antimicrobial susceptibility testing was conducted on all Salmonella isolates; only two exhibited resistance, a Salmonella subsp. (II) ser. 21:z10 :z6 (Wandsbek) isolate cultured from a wild-caught reptile and a Salmonella Typhimurium DT120 isolated from a captive snake. The invasive capacity of reptile-associated Salmonella strains into cultured human intestinal epithelial (Caco2) and mouse macrophages cell lines (J774A.1) was also investigated. All isolates were invasive into both cell lines. Significant (P 0.001) variability in invasiveness into polarized Caco2 cells was observed. Salmonella Eastbourne exhibited the highest invasiveness into Caco2 cells and Salmonella Chester the lowest, with mean per cent recoveries of 19.99 0.32 and 1.23 0.30, respectively. Invasion into J774A.1 macrophages was also variable but was not significant. Salmonella subsp. II ser. 17:g,t:- (Bleadon) exhibited the highest invasiveness into J774A.1 with a mean per cent recovery of 10.19 0.19. Thus, reptile-associated Salmonellae are likely to have different capacities to cause disease in humans.

Choleoeimeria spp. Prevalence in Captive Reptiles in Germany and a New Treatment Option in a Lawson's Dragon (Pogona henrylawsoni)

Coccidia are common endoparasites in reptiles, especially lizards. Within this class Choleoeimeria spp. infections are rarely detected, but they may have a high pathogenic potential and treatments are often unsuccessful. A retrospective study was performed evaluating the prevalence of Choleoeimeria in fecal samples from lizards submitted for routine examination to a diagnostic laboratory in Germany. Between 2013 and 2014, 1.5% (n = 24/1,621; 95% confidence interval [CI]: 1.0–2.2%) of coprological samples from different lizard species tested positive for Choleoeimeria oocysts using a fecal flotation technique. This prevalence was similar to data obtained 10 yr earlier at the same laboratory. Infected species included central bearded dragons (Pogona vitticeps), collared lizards (Crotaphytus collaris), unclassified agamids, monitors, one horned tree lizard (Acanthosaura sp.), one gecko, one common bluetongue (Tiliqua scincoides), and one chameleon. Different treatments (toltrazuril in varying intervals or trimethoprim and sulfonamide) in combination with strict environmental hygiene and disinfection with p-Chlor-m-Kresol did not impact fecal oocyst shedding for one juvenile Lawson's dragon (Pogona henrylawsoni). A new therapy approach using 10 mg/kg toltrazuril PO q 24 h for 3 days, with a repeat in 7 days, combined with 5 mg/kg clindamycin PO q 24 h for 7 days, finally resulted in negative oocyst shedding. Possible explanations for the challenging treatment of Choleoeimeria spp. are their localization in the gallbladder or the phylogenetical distance of the genus Choleoeimeria to the typical members of the family Eimeriidae. Further research is needed to increase our knowledge of these parasites and to develop an evidence-based treatment approach for diseased reptiles.