Replacing Animal Protein Research Articles

From Forest to Fork: A Systematic Review of Mushroom-Based Meat Analogues

Abstract The consumption of meat analogues is steadily increasing due to factors such as concerns about protein intake, meat availability, health, and environmental issues. Mushrooms provide a potential solution for substituting or replacing animal protein due to their high nutritional value and unique sensory properties. This review examines the differences in physical characteristics, organoleptic qualities, amino acid profiles, and dietary fibre content of meat analogues derived from various mushroom species. The review employed a textual narrative synthesis approach and adhered to the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) guidelines. A comprehensive analysis of 38 relevant publications reveals that the incorporation of mushrooms can influence the colour and texture of meat analogues. Additionally, the review highlights the impact of mushroom addition or substitution on the amino acid and dietary fibre content of meat analogues. It underscores the potential of mushrooms to create meat analogues with enhanced nutritional profiles, benefiting consumers, particularly those facing nutritional challenges like stunting. This paper emphasizes the importance of considering the specific mushroom species and processing techniques to optimize the quality of meat analogues.

Edible insects: Maybe environmentally friendly, maybe healthy, maybe tasty—But are we ready to farm them?

AbstractFor some time, environmental researchers and activists have been trying to convince the world that there is an urgent need to change the dietary habits of the modern human population. Their reasoning is based on several issues, with two main pillars supporting the whole concept. One involves mitigating global hunger, and the other addresses the impact that today's agricultural production has on the environment, particularly due to extensive and intensive agricultural practices, especially in developing countries and regions that help feed their populations. Perhaps the most promising proposal—and, as bibliometric analysis shows, more and more popular in the scientific community—is to replace animal protein with insect protein. It would allow for shifting agricultural production from animal‐based to insect‐based. In order to address this concept, the research community has been deeply involved in studying edible insects over the last decade. In doing so, researchers have examined nutritional value, sustainable production and environmental impact, consumer acceptance, and the challenges and opportunities from various perspectives. One might think that with such deep knowledge, the agricultural industry is well‐equipped to initiate this shift. In this article, we argue that this statement is far from true. It appears that the scientific literature on edible insects fails to address what is likely the most important aspect for producers: farming techniques and practices, along with related topics such as feeding, protection from diseases, pathogens, and pests, rearing conditions, breeding, and many other factors. The critical need to improve the sustainability of global agricultural production and reduce its environmental impact calls for rapid changes, so the agricultural research community should stop waiting for others to decide whether edible insects are the way to go. Instead of waiting, they should focus on addressing the most critical aspects of insect farming. The industry is, in fact, ahead of science, as insect farms are spreading across the world. However, for them to succeed, strong support from agricultural science is urgently needed.

Increasing plant protein in the diet induces changes in the plasma metabolome that may be beneficial for metabolic health. A randomized crossover study in males

Background & aimDietary shifts replacing animal protein (AP) with plant protein (PP) sources have been associated with lowering cardiometabolic risk (CMR), but underlying mechanisms are poorly characterized. This nutritional intervention aims to characterize the metabolic changes induced by diets containing different proportions of AP and PP sources in males at CMR. DesignThis study is a 4-week, crossover, randomized, controlled-feeding trial in which 19 males with CMR followed two diets providing either 36% for the control diet (CON-D) or 64% for the flexitarian diet (FLEX-D) of total protein intake from PP sources. Plasma nontargeted metabolomes (LC-MS method) were measured in the fasted state and after a high-fat challenge meal at the end of each intervention arm. Lipogenesis and protein synthesis fluxes, flow-mediated dilatation (FMD) and gluco-lipidic responses were assessed after the challenge meal. Data were analyzed with mixed models, and univariate and multivariate models for metabolomics data. ResultsIn both arms CMR improved with time, with decreased body weight (-0.9%), insulin resistant (-34%, HOMA-IR, Homeostatic Model Assessment for Insulin Resistance) and low-density lipoproteins (LDL)-cholesterol (-11%). Diet had no effect on FMD or metabolic fluxes, but a trend was observed for a stronger decrease in HOMA-IR and lower postprandial glucose after FLEX-D vs CON-D. The abundance of 21 and 37 metabolites differed between diets at fasted and fed states, respectively, including food intake biomarkers of AP (methylhistidine, eicosapentaenoic acid, hydroxyprolines) and PP sources (trigonelline, N-acetyl-ornithine). In fasted or fed states, indole acrylic acid and indole propionic acid, both products of tryptophan catabolism, were higher after FLEX-D vs CON-D, while the indispensable amino acids-related metabolites alpha-aminoadipic acid, hydroxymethylbutyric acids and propionylcarnitine were lower. In the postprandial state only, the ω-oxidation products dodecanedioic, tetradecanedioic and hexadecanedioic acids were higher after FLEX-D vs CON-D. ConclusionsDespite little changes in risk factors after 4 wk, this study evidenced subtle metabolic adaptations in amino acids and lipid metabolism and gut microbiota activity occurring after higher PP source intake that may be beneficial to CMR. ClinicalTrials.gov study identifierNCT04236518 Clinical Trial RegistryNCT04236518 on ClinicalTrials.gov

Novel Sustainable Bio-fertilizer Formulated with Mangrove-associated Bacteria Enhances Duckweed Growth and Protein Content

Duckweed is a future food and a source of affordable protein that has the potential to replace animal protein. This study aims to formulate a bio-fertilizer consisting of mangrove-associated bacteria to boost the growth and protein of duckweeds as a sustainable approach to increase plant-based protein yields. The culture-depending technique was performed by using Aleksandrow agar, Pikovskaya’s agar, and Jensen agar to screen potassium-solubilizing bacteria, phosphate-solubilizing bacteria and nitrogen-fixing bacteria, respectively, from mangrove soil sediments. Mangrove-associated bacteria that are close to <i>Acinetobacter radioresistens</i>, <i>Brachybacterium paraconglomeratum</i>, and <i>Enterobacter cloacae</i>, which are known as nitrogen-fixing bacteria, <i>Klebsiella quasipneumoniae</i>, <i>Bacillus tropicus</i>, and <i>Paenibacillus pasadenensis</i> known as potassium-solubilizing bacteria, and <i>Bacillus cereus</i> and <i>Bacillus thuringiensis</i> known as phosphate-solubilizing bacteria were identified through 16S rRNA gene sequencing. After that, three sets of bio-fertilizers were randomly formulated. Each set consisted of nitrogen-fixing bacteria, potassium- and phosphate-solubilizing bacteria, as well as commercial compost as a carrier. These formulated bio-fertilizers were evaluated for plant growth promotion and protein production on duckweed plants under temperatures between 26 and 30°C. The results showed that each set of our formulated bio-fertilizer can increase the nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P), and potassium (K), duckweed growth, and protein content when compared to the control group. It indicates that bio-fertilizers formulated with mangrove-associated bacteria and high NPK contents could enhance the growth of duckweed as well as its protein content, which could supply our future plant-based protein sustainably.

Protein from Plants and Algae: Potential Trends of Replacing Animal Protein for Public Health

Meat is considered as a significant source of high-quality protein along with other nutritional benefits and sensory properties. However, meat production and consumption is associated with human health concerns, including increased risk of zoonotic diseases, chronic diseases, and air pollution-related health problems. In recent years, there has been a notable increase in the market value of alternative proteins. There is a shift in dietary preferences fromomnivorousto vegetarian or flexitarian diets, and eventuallyto plant-based and algae-based diets. Innovative technologies have been used to produce new products aimed at replacingmeat proteins. These include plant-based options such as tofu, tempeh, seitan, textured soy protein; and alternatives derived from algae such as raw ground pork meat, reduced nitrite turkey meat sausages, and pork meat batter formulations.

Rice proteins – Gum arabic coacervates: Effect of pH and polysaccharide concentration in oil-in-water emulsion stability

In the context of replacing animal proteins in food matrices, rice proteins (RP) become promised because they come from an abundant plant source, are hypoallergenic, and have high digestibility and nutritional value. However, commercial protein isolates obtained by spray drying have low solubility and poor functionality, especially in their isoelectric point. One way to modify these properties is through interaction with polysaccharides, such as gum arabic (GA). Therefore, this work aims to evaluate the effects of pH and GA concentration on the interaction and emulsifying activity of RP:GA coacervates. First, the effects of pH (2.5 to 7.0) and GA concentrations (0.2 to 1.0 wt%, giving rise to RP:GA mass ratios of 1:0.2 to 1:1.0) in RP:GA blends were evaluated. The results demonstrated that biopolymers present opposite net charges at pH between 2.5 and 4.0. At pH 3.0, insoluble coacervates with complete charge neutralization were formed by electrostatic interactions, while at pH 5.0 it was observed that the presence of GA prevented the RP massive aggregation. Second, selected blends with 0.4 or 1.0 wt% of GA (RP:GA mass ratios of 1:0.4 or 1:1.0) at pH 3.0 or 5.0 were tested for their ability to stabilize oil-in-water emulsions. The emulsions were characterized for 21 days. It was observed that the GA increased the stability of RP emulsions, regardless of the pH and polysaccharide concentration. Taken together, our results show that it is possible to combine RP and GA to improve the emulsifying properties of these plant proteins at pH conditions close to their isoelectric point, expanding the possibility of implementation in food systems.

Comparison of microwave and vacuum oven drying on the amino acid composition and antioxidant properties of black soldier fly (Hermetia illucens) prepupae

Hermetia illucens or black soldier fly (BSF) is one of the edible insects with the potential to replace animal protein in feed. This study is aimed to compare the effect of microwave oven drying and vacuum drying on its biochemical, antioxidant and physicochemical properties of BSFP to produce shelf-stable animal feed. BSF larvae were fed with fruit waste until prepupal stage and subsequently the prepupae were harvested for drying process using microwave-oven drying (MD-BSFP) and vacuum-oven drying (VD-BSFP). Based on the experimental result, the crude protein of VD-BSFP (31.00%) was higher than MD-BSFP (16.90%) which was significantly different at p < 0.05. Furthermore, the proportion of EAA to total amino acids (E/T) attained using MD-BSFP (24.64%) was significantly higher than that of VD-BSFP (7.86%). In addition, VD-BSFP (12.0 ± 3.0%) had higher free radical scavenging activity than MD-BSFP (5.7 ± 0.2%) at p < 0.05. In conclusion, VD is more preferable than MD as a drying procedure to produce BSFP powder with lower moisture content, higher protein content and antioxidant properties.

Mechanism of improving the digestibility of coconut globulin by atmospheric cold plasma treatment: The perspective of protein structure

As a natural emulsifier in coconut milk, coconut globulin (CG) is a potential plant-based protein source to replace animal protein. However, due to its poor solubility and poor digestive properties, CG is not sufficiently utilized. The aim of this study was to improve the digestibility of CG by employing atmospheric cold plasma (ACP) technology. The influence of ACP treatment on the digestive properties of coconut globulin was evaluated by measurements of digestibility, degree of hydrolysis, free amino acids (FAAs), and polypeptide distribution after gastrointestinal digestion. These results implied that application of ACP treatment facilitated the digestion of CG, resulting in the hydrolysis of the compound into numerous smaller peptides (<1000 Da) and FAAs. The quartz crystal microbalance with dissipation technique was utilized to monitor the dynamic digestion process of CG. The results observed that ACP-treated CG had increased affinity for pepsin and trypsin, especially at 60 kV (the adsorbed mass was 7.60 μg/cm2). Various analytical techniques, including circular dichroism spectroscopy, Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy, fluorescence spectroscopy, and particle size distribution, demonstrated that ACP treatment facilitated the structural unfold of CG, resulting in increased exposure of enzyme binding sites and hydrolysis into smaller fragments. In addition, in vitro and cell-based antioxidant experiments provided evidence of the significant antioxidant activity of the hydrolysate derived from ACP-treated CG. Hence, the utilization of ACP treatment at 60 kV emerged as the optimal approach for enhancing the digestibility of CG (from 71.65% to 78.65%). This finding provides a theoretical basis for the use of ACP treatment in protein-rich foods, thereby providing insights for expanding the application of ACP treatment in the field of food processing.

The effect of plant protein high levels in feed on biometric and histopathological parameters of rainbow trout

Comparative studies of the effect of replacing animal protein in the structure of the diet with vegetable protein on biometric parameters and histopathological parameters of the liver of rainbow trout have been carried out on biological models of rainbow trout. Changes in trout carcass structure were revealed, indicating a change in live weight in the 1st control and 2nd experimental groups with a result of 3.7%, changes occurred in the 3rd group - 7.4%. Moreover, the changes in muscle mass in group 2 were expressed better than in the control group by 1.5%, similarly in group 3 – 12.8%. The weight gain of edible parts in group 2 was expressed better by 4.1% than in the control group, and in the experimental group 3 – 7.3%. The mass of in-edible parts in the study groups was also higher than in the control group. The yield of edible parts was higher in the 2 experimental group by 0.21%, in the experimental group 3 – 0.2%. When examining the liver tissue of the experimental group 3, some degenerative changes were revealed. Vacuolization of liver cells in the experimental group 3, which were fed a diet with vegetable protein high content in its structure, was significantly lower, and accordingly, in this group there were the smallest hepatocytes. Defects in cellular contacts in the liver, destruction, and proliferation of lymphohistiocyte cells into sinusoids were observed. Thus, a decrease of animal feed in the structure of predatory fish diets to the level of 25% leads to liver degeneration. This reactive adaptation of the liver to a new vegetable protein ingredient is of a short-term nature.

Characterizations of emulsion gel formed with the mixture of whey and soy protein and its protein digestion under in vitro gastric conditions

Partially replacing animal proteins with plant proteins to develop new products has much attention. To get knowledge of their application in emulsion gels, heat-induced composite protein emulsion gels were fabricated using the mixtures of whey protein isolate (WPI) and soy protein isolate (SPI) with the final total protein concentration of 10% (w/w). The water holding capacity (WHC), mechanical and rheological properties and microstructure of mixed protein emulsion gels prepared at different WPI to SPI ratios (100:0, 90:10, 70:30, 50:50, 30:70, 10:90, 0:100, w/w) were investigated. The ratios of WPI to SPI showed little effect on the WHC of the mixed protein emulsion gels (p > 0.05). Increasing the ratio of SPI decreased the hardness and storage modulus (G′) of mixed protein emulsion gels, whereas the porosity of mixed protein emulsion gels in the microstructure increased, as shown by CLSM. Both β-lactoglobulin and α-lactalbumin from WPI and 7 S and 11 S from SPI participated in forming the gel matrix of mixed protein emulsion gels. More protein aggregates existed as the gel matrix filler at the high soy protein levels. Interestingly, the G′ of mixed protein emulsion gels at the WPI to SPI ratio of 50:50 was higher than the sum of G′ of individual WPI and SPI emulsion gels. The whey protein network predominated the gel matrix, while soy protein predominated in the active filling effect. When subjected to an in vitro dynamic gastric digestion model, soy protein in the gels (WPI:SPI = 50:50) degraded faster than whey protein during gastric digestion. This study provided new information on the characteristics of composite protein emulsion gel fabricated with the WPI and SPI mixture.

Hygienic indicator bacteria in the 2 species of wild-caught Japanese cicadas, large brown cicadas and robust cicadas

Abstract Entomophagy is considered a potent dietary practice to replace animal protein due to its highly nutritious and environmentally sustainable features. While entomophagy has many advantages, safety and security concerns still remain, especially for wild-caught insects, not farm-reared insects. This study aimed to clarify the potential microbiological hazards of eating wild-caught cicadas. Large brown cicadas and robust cicadas, which were commonly inhabited in Japan, were caught and examined the hygienic indicator bacteria, standard plate counts (SPC) and Enterobacteriaceae. Then, representative colonies of Enterobacteriaceae were identified. Also, the distribution of bacteria, i.e. the surface or inside the body of the cicadas, and the changes in the bacterial number during the storage of the dead cicadas were examined. SPC was in the range of 3.0 to 9.0 log CFU/g and Enterobacteriaceae was detected in the most of cicadas. Most of the Enterobacteriaceae species identified were biosafety level 2 pathogens or opportunistic pathogens. SPC and Enterobacteriaceae were distributed both on the surface and in the body of the cicadas. SPC and Enterobacteriaceae rapidly increased in the dead cicadas during the storage (at 25 °C). In this study, it is concluded that sufficient heat cooking and proper cold storage should be necessary for the safe consumption of cicadas as food.

Mung bean protein as an emerging source of plant protein: a review on production methods, functional properties, modifications and its potential applications.

Plant protein is rapidly becoming more of a prime interest to consumers for its nutritional and functional properties, as well as the potential to replace animal protein. In the frame of alternative protein new sources, mung bean is becoming another legume crop that could provide high quality plant protein after soybean and pea. In particular, the 8S globulins in mung bean protein have high structural similarity and homology with soybean β-conglycinin (7S globulin), with 68% sequence identity. Currently, mung bean protein has gained popularity in food industry because of its high nutritional value and peculiar functional properties. In that regard, various modification technologies have been applied to further broaden its application. Here, we provide a review of the composition, nutritional value, production methods, functional properties and modification technologies of mung bean protein. Furthermore, its potential applications in the new plant-based products, meat products, noodles, edible packaging films and bioactive compound carriers are highlighted to facilitate its utilization as an alternative plant protein, thus meeting consumer demands for high quality plant protein resources. © 2023 Society of Chemical Industry.

Sensory properties and consumer acceptance of plant-based meat, dairy, fish and eggs analogs: a systematic review

IntroductionOver the past years, several efforts have been made to formulate and develop plant-based substitutes of animal-based products in response to environmental changes, health issues and animal welfare. However, plant-based protein poses several challenges to product sensory characteristics, especially appearance, flavor, and texture. Despite this, current literature data have mainly reviewed nutritional, technological, and sustainability aspects of plant-based products with limited concerns on perceived sensory properties and perceptive barriers to consumption related to each specific substitute. To fill this literature gap, this systematic review aims to provide an up-to-date overview of the perceptive determinants of consumers' acceptance of plant-based substitutes of animal-origin products, including meat, dairy, fish and eggs analogs, with emphasis on product's intrinsic properties: appearance, smell, taste, and texture. Moreover, age-, gender-, and cultural-related differences in the appreciation/rejection of plant-based substitutes of animal-origin products were investigated.MethodsThe systematic analysis of the literature consulting Web of Science (Core Collection) and Scopus databases retrieved 13 research articles on meat, 26 on dairy, and two on fish and eggs analogs.Results and discussionResults showed that all sensory dimensions are influenced by the replacement of animal proteins with those of vegetable origin. However, the relative importance of appearance, odor, taste, and texture varied according to plant-based analogs category and mitigatory processing strategies to mask unpleasant sensory properties have been suggested for each category. Dairy analogs mainly suffer of aromas and flavors imparted by the raw materials, while both meat and dairy analogs have texture challenges. Meat analogs lack of juiciness, elasticity and firmness, while dairy analogs require uniform, creamy and thick texture. Moreover, very few studies analyzed the product's perception, considering age- and gender-related differences or cross-national/cultural differences. Future research should be addressed to specific product categories such as fish and eggs analogs as well as specific population targets including children and the elderly and consumers from developing countries.

Efficacy of soy protein concentrate replacing animal protein supplements in mucosa-associated microbiota, intestinal health, and growth performance of nursery pigs.

This study investigated the effects of using soy protein concentrate (SPC) to replace animal protein supplements on mucosa-associated microbiota, intestinal health, and growth performance of nursery pigs. Fifty-six newly weaned pigs (BW= 6.4±0.6kg) were allotted to 5 treatments in a randomized complete block design. Pigs were fed for 35d in 3 phases (P; 1, 2, 3) for 10, 12, 13d, respectively. Dietary treatments were: (1) basal diet with fish meal (P1: 4%, P2: 2%, and P3: 1%), poultry meal (P1: 10%, P2: 8%, and P3: 4%), and blood plasma (P1: 4%, P2: 2%, and P3: 1%), where SPC replacing none (NC); (2) basal diet with SPC replacing fish meal (RFM); (3) basal diet with SPC replacing poultry meal (RPM); (4) basal diet with SPC replacing blood plasma (RBP); and (5) basal diet with SPC replacing all animal protein supplements (PC). Growth performance was recorded for each phase. Pigs were euthanized on d 35 to collect jejunal mucosa and tissue to evaluate intestinal health and microbiota, and ileal digesta to measure apparent ileal digestibility (AID) of nutrients. Data were analyzed using the MIXED procedure of SAS. Overall, RFM, RPM, and RBP did not affect growth performance, whereas PC decreased (P<0.05) ADG and ADFI. The RPM increased (P<0.05) Prevotella stercorea and decreased (P<0.05) Helicobacter rappini. The PC decreased (P<0.05) H.rappini, whilst increasing (P<0.05) Prevotella copri, Propionibacterium acnes, and Pelomonas aquatica. The RFM tended to increase (P=0.096) immunoglobulin A in the jejunum. The PC tended to decrease (P=0.078) jejunal crypt cell proliferation. There were no differences in the villus height, AID of nutrients, intestinal inflammation, and intestinal oxidative stress among treatments. In conclusion, SPC can replace fish meal, poultry meal, or blood plasma individually without affecting growth performance and intestinal health, and AID of nutrients of nursery pigs. Particularly SPC replacing poultry meal benefitted intestinal health by reducing H.rappini and increasing P.stercorea. However, SPC replacing all three animal protein supplements reduced growth of nursery pigs mainly by reducing feed intake.

EU consumer awareness of food safety and healthy diets: Are there synergies to benefit a sustainable protein transition?

This paper aims to gain more insight into potential synergies between food safety and healthy diets with a sustainable protein transition (i.e., reducing protein over-consumption and replacing animal protein with plant protein) in the EU. The paper is based on a systematic analysis of the survey on food safety, organized by the European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) as part of Eurobarometer wave 97.2 (Spring 2022). Consumers responded somewhat differently to the survey items on chemical contaminants in food than to those on biological hazards in food, plant health and animal health and welfare. They were somewhat more aware of and concerned about the former than the latter. They also had different ideas on the most important healthy diet items. Cluster analysis identified five clusters who, inter alia, focused on conventional options (e.g., eating fewer calories) or the protein replacement options. Multilevel logistic regression analysis showed that food safety awareness and concern variables, explicitly including farm animal welfare, were somewhat stronger associated with the protein replacement cluster than with the conventional cluster. Hence, synergies between food safety and healthy diet issues may stimulate the replacement (not reduction) aspects of a sustainable protein transition. The Discussion suggests that further research should investigate how improving the quality of a week menu with a high diversity of protein sources can help to promote the reduction of over-consumption.

Recent progress in the fabrication of advanced emulsions with pea proteins and their application in the food industry

AbstractFood emulsion is one of the major systems in the food industry, which exists in spreads, dressings, creams, sauces, dips, and beverages. Recently, there has been an active search for suitable plant protein sources to replace animal proteins for the fabrication of advanced emulsion systems in the food industry. Pea protein is getting more and more attention as a good emulsifier in the food industry because of its low cost, low allergy, rich nutrition, and good functionality. This review summarizes recent studies on the fabrication and utilization of these advanced emulsions with pea proteins, including nanoemulsions, Pickering emulsions, high internal phase emulsions, and double emulsions. A brief description of emulsifying property of pea protein is given, then the formation and properties of each type of pea protein emulsions are described, and finally, the potential applications of pea protein as an emulsifier in commercial food products are introduced. A particular emphasis is given to the utilization of pea protein as an emulsifier and these advanced pea protein emulsions for the delivery of bioactive components, 3D printing, and production of market products.

Comparative effects of soy protein concentrate, enzyme-treated soybean meal, and fermented soybean meal replacing animal protein supplements in feeds on growth performance and intestinal health of nursery pigs

BackgroundSoy protein supplements, with high crude protein and less antinutritional factors, are produced from soybean meal by different processes. This study evaluated the comparative effects of various soy protein supplements replacing animal protein supplements in feeds on the intestinal immune status, intestinal oxidative stress, mucosa-associated microbiota, and growth performance of nursery pigs.MethodsSixty nursery pigs (6.6 ± 0.5 kg BW) were allotted to five treatments in a randomized complete block design with initial BW and sex as blocks. Pigs were fed for 39 d in 3 phases (P1, P2, and P3). Treatments were: Control (CON), basal diet with fish meal 4%, 2%, and 1%, poultry meal 10%, 8%, and 4%, and blood plasma 4%, 2%, and 1% for P1, P2, and P3, respectively; basal diet with soy protein concentrate (SPC), enzyme-treated soybean meal (ESB), fermented soybean meal with Lactobacillus (FSBL), and fermented soybean meal with Bacillus (FSBB), replacing 1/3, 2/3, and 3/3 of animal protein supplements for P1, P2, and P3, respectively. Data were analyzed using the MIXED procedure in SAS 9.4.ResultsThe SPC did not affect the BW, ADG, and G:F, whereas it tended to reduce (P = 0.094) the ADFI and tended to increase (P = 0.091) crypt cell proliferation. The ESM did not affect BW, ADG, ADFI, and G:F, whereas tended to decrease (P = 0.098) protein carbonyl in jejunal mucosa. The FSBL decreased (P < 0.05) BW and ADG, increased (P < 0.05) TNF-α, and Klebsiella and tended to increase MDA (P = 0.065) and IgG (P = 0.089) in jejunal mucosa. The FSBB tended to increase (P = 0.073) TNF-α, increased (P < 0.05) Clostridium and decreased (P < 0.05) Achromobacter and alpha diversity of microbiota in jejunal mucosa.ConclusionsSoy protein concentrate, enzyme-treated soybean meal, and fermented soybean meal with Bacillus could reduce the use of animal protein supplements up to 33% until 7 kg body weight, up to 67% from 7 to 11 kg body weight, and entirely from 11 kg body weight without affecting the intestinal health and the growth performance of nursery pigs. Fermented soybean meal with Lactobacillus, however, increased the immune reaction and oxidative stress in the intestine consequently reducing the growth performance.

Iron Bioavailability Should be Considered when Modeling Omnivorous, Vegetarian, and Vegan Diets

BackgroundTo lower environmental impact of human food consumption, replacement of animal proteins with plant-based proteins is encouraged. However, the lower iron bioavailability of plant-based foods is rarely considered when designing healthy and sustainable diets by using diet modeling. The estimated absorbable iron content of vegetarian and vegan menu plans might therefore be too optimistic. ObjectiveThe main aim of this study was to investigate and compare the impact of various methods to estimate absorbable iron intake on the nutritional adequacy of omnivorous, vegetarian, and vegan menu plans designed for women of reproductive age. MethodsA diet model was developed to design menu plans consisting of a selection of meals that best complied with nutritional requirements. Meals used for modeling were created based on food intake data from the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES). For each meal, absorbable iron concentrations were estimated by using 2 constant absorption factors (18% and 10%) and 2 diet-dependent absorption equations (Conway and Hallberg). For each absorption method and diet type, we used the diet model to design the optimal menu plan. Retrospectively, menu plans were evaluated by estimating the absorbable iron content by using the other absorption methods. ResultsRetrospective diet-dependent absorbable iron estimates were consistently lower than estimates based on constant absorption factors. Using diet-dependent estimates increased absorbable iron by optimizing enhancer and inhibitor concentrations. ConclusionIron bioavailability should be considered when modeling diets.

Animal versus plant-based protein and risk of cardiovascular disease and type 2 diabetes: a systematic review of randomized controlled trials and prospective cohort studies.

To systematically review the evidence on the effect of replacing the intake of animal protein with plant protein on cardiovascular disease (CVD) and type 2 diabetes (T2D) and their intermediate risk factors. We searched MEDLINE, Embase, Cochrane Central Register of Controlled Trials, and Scopus up to 12th May 2022 for randomized controlled trials (RCTs) or prospective cohort studies that investigated replacement of animal protein with plant protein from foods. Outcomes were CVDs, T2D, and in RCTs also the effects on blood lipids, glycemic markers, and blood pressure. Risk of bias was evaluated with the Cochrane's RoB2, ROBINS-I, and USDA's RoB-NObS tools. Random-effects meta-analyses assessed the effects of plant vs. animal proteins on blood lipids in RCTs. The evidence was appraised according to the World Cancer Research Fund's criteria. After screening 15,090 titles/abstracts, full text of 124 papers was scrutinized in detail, from which 13 RCTs and seven cohort studies were included. Eight of the RCTs had either some concern or high risk of bias, while the corresponding evaluation of cohort studies resulted in moderate risk of bias for all seven. Meta-analyses of RCTs suggested a protective effect on total cholesterol (mean difference -0.11 mmol/L; 95% CI -0.22, -0.01) and low-density lipoprotein cholesterol (-0.14 mmol/L; 95% CI -0.25, -0.02) by replacing animal protein with plant protein. The substitution of animal protein with plant protein (percentage of energy intake) in cohort studies was associated with lower CVD mortality (n = 4) and lower T2D incidence (n = 2). The evidence was considered limited-suggestive for both outcomes. Evidence that the substitution of animal protein with plant protein reduces risk of both CVD mortality and T2D incidence is limited-suggestive. Replacing animal protein with plant protein for aspects of sustainability may also be a public health strategy to lower the risk of CVD mortality and T2D.

Black soldier fly larvae replace traditional iced trash fish diet to enhance the delicious flavor of Chinese mitten crab (Eriocheir sinensis)

Chinese mitten crabs (Eriocheir sinensis) are traditionally fed iced trash fish, but the industry is facing problems such as low breeding safety. Black soldier fly (Hermetia illucens) is an alternative protein source in animal diets, including diets for aquatic animals, due to its high nutritional value. However, studies on the effects of black soldier fly on the flavor characteristics of aquatic animals are still limited. In the present study, we investigated the effects of the complete replacement of iced trash fish with black soldier fly larvae during the fattening period of Chinese mitten crab on the flavor molecule contents and evaluation indices. The levels of free amino acids and nucleotides were determined in three edible parts (muscle, hepatopancreas, and gonads) of crab. Taste activity value analysis showed that glutamic acid, glycine, alanine, and arginine were the main amino acids contributing to the umami taste and sweetness, while histidine, lysine, valine, and methionine were the main amino acids contributing to the bitterness. Equivalent umami concentration (EUC) analysis showed that female gonads had the strongest umami taste, followed by the hepatopancreas and muscle. Sweetness value (SWT) analysis showed that the sweetness of muscle was the highest. Feeding black soldier fly larvae affected the flavor characteristics of crabs with tissue and sex differences. The EUC of the female gonads and SWT of the muscle were significantly increased. Meanwhile, the EUC of the hepatopancreas and SWT of the gonads were slightly decreased in male crabs. Our results indicate that the complete replacement of iced trash fish with black soldier fly larvae during the fattening period significantly enhances the flavor characteristics of crabs based on the contents of flavoring amino acids and nucleotides. It is important for sustainable aquaculture to replace animal protein with alternative protein sources such as black soldier fly larvae.