Animal Fat Replacers Research Articles

Replacing Animal Fat with Gels of Psyllium Fiber and Combined Linseed Oil–Psyllium Fiber in Salamis: Impacts on Technological, Nutritional, Oxidative, and Sensory Properties

This study produced two gels: one solely using psyllium fiber (GP) and another combining this fiber with linseed oil (GL+P). Both gels replaced 15% and 30% of the animal fat content of salamis. The objective was to evaluate the impact of this lipid reformulation on the technological, nutritional, oxidative, and sensory properties of the salamis. The lipid reformulation did not alter the evolution of pH and lactic acid bacteria during processing. The addition of GL+P did not interfere with the product’s drying process. However, replacing 30% of animal fat with the GP resulted in greater weight loss and a lower final Aw value. The lipid reformulation minimally affected the color of the salamis but significantly enhanced their nutritional profile. This improvement was marked by a decrease in fat content and an increase in protein. Specifically, in the samples with GL+P, there was a rise in linolenic acid content and a reduction in the n-6/n-3 PUFA ratio. Adding GP did not affect the salamis’ oxidative stability and sensory profile. However, substituting 30% of the animal fat with GL+P increased the TBARS values, and volatile compounds derived from lipid oxidation hampered the products’ sensory profiles. A reduction in these negative effects was observed when replacing 15% of the fat with GL+P, suggesting this to be the ideal dosage for balancing the nutritional benefits with maintaining the product’s oxidative stability.

Alheiras with animal fat replacement: application of a gelled emulsion based on hemp oil (Cannabis sativa L.) and buckwheat

A gelled emulsion elaborated using hemp seed oil and buckwheat flour was utilized as pork backfat substitute in a typical Portuguese meat product named Alheira. Three different formulations were prepared: Alheiras control (AC) with a fat content of 13%, alheiras where the 25% pork backfat was substituted with a hemp seed oil-GE (AH25), and alheiras where the 50% pork backfat was substituted with a hemp seed oil-GE (AH50). The chemical composition as well as the physicochemical properties and lipid stability of different samples were assessed. Reformulated samples showed similar protein, moisture, and fat content (p < 0.05) that AC. However, AH25 and AH50 had a higher amount of linoleic acid (16.29 and 22.14 g/100 g, respectively) and linolenic acid (1.75 and 3.45 g/100 g, respectively) than AC (12.71 and 0.51 g/100 g). Similarly, AH25 and AH50 showed lower saturated fatty acids (35.28 and 30.37 g/100 g, respectively) than AC (37.37 g/100 g). The substitution of pork backfat for hemp seed oil-GE did not modify significantly the physicochemical properties of samples. On the other hand, the lipid oxidation values increased by 30 and 65% in AH25 and AH50 respectively, in comparison to AC due to the use of polyunsaturated oils, which are highly susceptible to oxidation. This work established that the use of gelled emulsions elaborated using hemp oil and buckwheat flour may be a promising strategy to obtain meat products with a better healthier profile.

Effects of the use of raw or cooked chickpeas and the sausage cooking time on the quality of a lamb-meat, olive-oil emulsion-type sausage

Reformulation of cooked sausages using high-protein plant-based food such as chickpea as meat extenders and vegetable oils to replace animal fat can be a suitable approach to promote the consumption of smaller portions of meat. The pre-processing of chickpea and the sausage cooking intensity can potentially affect the quality of reformulated sausages. In this study, an emulsion-type sausage made with lamb meat, chickpea and olive oil was prepared in triplicate following three different formulations containing the same targeted levels of protein (8.9%), lipids (21.5%), and starch (2.9%): control sausage (CON; control, without chickpea), and raw (RCP) and cooked chickpea (CCP) sausages (both with 7% chickpea). Sausages were cooked at 85 °C for two heating times (40 min or 80 min) and were analysed for weight loss, emulsion stability, colour, texture, lipid oxidation and volatile composition. Compared to CON sausages, the use of raw chickpea reduced the elasticity and significantly increased lipid oxidation during the sausage-making process resulting in major changes in the volatile composition. The use of previously cooked chickpea, however, resulted in the sausages having greater cooking loss, hardness and chewiness than CON sausages, while there was no difference in lipid oxidation, and differences in volatile compounds were scarce. The reformulation with cooked chickpea could provide a sausage with more similarity to the CON sausage. The extended heating time of 80 min at 85 °C did not significantly affect the quality traits in either CON or reformulated sausages except for a higher cooking loss.

Formulation of Palm Oil Based Fat Replacer and Its Application on Meat Analogue

Fat replacer is food ingredients used to mimic and replace animal fat in food products. The demand of low saturated fat in food products increase because of health concerns related to degenerative disease. Vegetable oil in a liquid state must be solidified to mimic animal fat by the emulsification process. This study aims to create and formulate fat replacer using palm olein and palm stearin as a source of unsaturated fatty acid. The formula was composed with vegetable oil concentration of 30% (K1), 35% (K2), 40% (K3), 45% (K4), and 50% (K5). A concentration of 15% fat replacers emulsion was added to make a meat analogue. Proximate analysis from all treatments showed that meat analogue has water content in the range of 53.90–57.56%, ash content of 2.87–3.10%, protein content of 9.04–15.32%, fat content of 13.22–19.13% and carbohydrate content of 2.35–2.53%. Oil concentration in fat replacer affected to the texture and sensory properties of meat analogue. The results indicate that the five treatments comply with the national quality standards for meat sausages.

Effects of Lecithin/Sorbitol Monostearate-Canola Oil Oleogel as Animal Fat Replacer on the Fatty Acid Composition and Physicochemical Properties of Lamb Sausage

In the study, the oleogel developed by lecithin/sorbitol monostearate (SMS) with canola oil was prepared and used as lamb fat replacer (0, 25, 50, 75, and 100%) for lamb sausage. Lecithin/SMS-canola oil oleogel decreased the cooking loss, hardness, springiness, chewiness and resilience of sausage, without affecting the cohesiveness. The ratio of unsaturated to saturated fatty acid increased from 1.12 to 3.38 as the replacement increased from 0 to 100%, presenting a health implication. The sensory scores showed no significant difference when the replacement was lower than 50%. The TBARS values of treatment groups were significantly lower than the control after 24 d storage, indicating the retard of lipid oxidation. These findings suggest that 50% replacement of lamb fat with lecithin/SMS-canola oil oleogels may be the optimal for lamb sausages, which provide new information for developing healthy meat products.

The Effect of Adding Grape Seed Oil on the Chemical, Physical and Microbial Properties of Yoghurt

The research aims to study the chemical tests of grape seed oil such as peroxide number, acidity number, saponification number and physical tests such as refractive index, density and smoking point, as well as estimating fatty acids in the oil and manufacturing healthy yoghurt milk by replacing animal fat with grape seed oil and by adding the initiator Lactobacillus bulgaricus, Streptococcus thermophiles. It also studies the changes in the product during storage for 14 days, estimation of peroxide number, acidity, pH, as well as estimation of the total count of bacteria, lactic acid bacteria and E.coli.

Nutritional characteristics and consumer attitudes towards burgers produced by replacing animal fat with oils obtained from food by-products

In this study, the oils obtained from melon and pumpkin seeds, considered to be by-products of the food industry, were used to prepare lamb meat burgers. The substitution of each of the emulsified seed oils for animal fat was carried out in three concentrations. The burgers obtained show a reduced percentage of polyunsaturated fatty acids, as well as an increased concentration of vitamin E, with differences depending on the oil emulsion used. To evaluate the acceptance of reformulated burgers, a discrete choice experiment was also used to identify the effects on consumers' purchasing attitudes of using a “with seed oil” label. The results obtained suggest that this label would not lead to greater acceptance of the product, even revealing a negative willingness to pay. In light of the results, the use strategies emphasizing the lower fat content of these burgers (“reduced fat content”) or their higher content of polyunsaturated fatty acids is proposed.

Effects of Animal Fat Replacement by Emulsified Melon and Pumpkin Seed Oils in Deer Burgers

Meat products such as burgers contain large amounts of saturated fat and are considered unhealthy foods by a society that is increasingly aware of the impact of food on their health, as there is a widespread idea that the consumption of large amounts of saturated fats is related to cardiovascular diseases, some types of cancer and obesity. The main goal of this study was to reformulate deer burgers by replacing the saturated fat from its composition with emulsions of oil extracted from melon and pumpkin seeds. Three emulsions were made with these oils (guar gum and inulin, sodium alginate and maltodextrin) to obtain a solid texture. Then, burgers were elaborated, using the vegetable oil emulsions to replace partially (50%) or totally (100%) the animal fat usually used in their elaboration. Physical parameters such as color and texture, consumer evaluation, proximate analysis and the fatty acid composition obtained by gas chromatography were analyzed. The burgers made with emulsified oils showed a higher weight loss, but with a minor loss of caliber and hardness (p < 0.05). From the sensory point of view, the reformulated burgers were positively valued by consumer judges when external aspect, odor, flavor and texture were evaluated. Furthermore, the addition of oil emulsions results in a lower fat content and in an increment of the proportion of unsaturated fatty acids, especially linoleic acid (p < 0.05). The inclusion of emulsified melon and pumpkin oil in deer burgers leads to an increase in the content of polyunsaturated fatty acids in burgers that, although they showed small differences in texture attributes (especially hardness and cohesiveness), were well valued by consumer judges in all sensory attributes evaluated.

Effect of Palm-Based Shortenings of Various Melting Ranges as Animal Fat Replacers on the Physicochemical Properties and Emulsion Stability of Chicken Meat Emulsion.

This study evaluated the effects of palm shortenings (PS) with varying melting ranges (MR) on the physicochemical, emulsion stability, rheological, thermal, textural, and microtextural properties of chicken meat emulsions. Six emulsions were developed: control (chicken skin), sample A (PS at MR of 33-36 °C), sample B (PS at MR of 38-42 °C), sample C (PS at MR of 44-46 °C), sample D (PS at MR of 45-49 °C), and sample E (PS at MR of 55-60 °C). There were no significant differences in cooking loss, pH, and water-holding capacity between the meat emulsions, with sample E providing a more stable emulsion with the lowest fat content and highest moisture content. The colour profiles and protein thermal stabilities of the fat-replaced meat emulsions were not significantly different from the control. The hardness, shear force, storage, and loss moduli increased when palm shortenings with higher melting range were used, with sample E having the highest values. Sample E also exhibited a smaller pore size and more compact structure, and thus was well-emulsified compared to the other samples. Overall, palm shortenings-particularly those with a melting range of 55-60 °C-have the potential to replace chicken skin in meat emulsions.

Emulsion Gels Formed by Electrostatic Interaction of Gelatine and Modified Corn Starch via pH Adjustments: Potential Fat Replacers in Meat Products.

The application of emulsion gels as animal fat replacers in meat products has been focused on due to their unique physicochemical properties. The electrostatic interaction between proteins and polysaccharides could influence emulsion gel stability. This study aimed to evaluate the physicochemical properties of emulsion gels using starch and gelatin as stabilizers, promoting electrostatic attraction via pH adjustment. Three systems were studied: emulsion gel A (EGA) and emulsion gel B (EGB), which have positive and negative net charges that promote electrostatic interaction, and emulsion gel C (EGC), whose charge equals the isoelectric point and does not promote electrostatic interactions. There was no significant difference in proximate analysis, syneresis and thermal stability between samples, while EGA and EGB had higher pH values than EGC. The lightness (L*) value was higher in EGA and EGB, while the yellowness (b*) value was the highest in EGC. The smaller particle size (p < 0.05) in EGA and EGB also resulted in higher gel strength, hardness and oxidative stability. Microscopic images showed that EGA and EGB had a more uniform matrix structure. X-ray diffraction demonstrated that all the emulsion gels crystallized in a β′ polymorph form. Differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) revealed a single characteristic peak was detected in both the melting and cooling curves for all the emulsion gels, which indicated that the fat exists in a single polymorphic state. All emulsion gels presented a high amount of unsaturated fatty acids and reduced saturated fat by up to 11%. Therefore, the emulsion gels (EGA and EGB) that favored the electrostatic protein-polysaccharide interactions are suitable to be used as fat replacers in meat products.

A novel strategy for simultaneous reduction of salt and animal fat in burger using a taste contrast system based on double emulsion

The work investigated a taste contrast strategy to reduce the salt content in burgers by a novel design of water in gelled oil in water double emulsion (DE) as an animal fat replacer. Oleogelation reduced the particle size and improved emulsion viscosity, resulting in more emulsion stability than conventional DE. Moreover, oil gelation enhanced the encapsulation efficiency of salt. The partial substitution of the optimized DE incorporating salt within the W1 and cinnamaldehyde within the oil phase with animal fat in the burger successfully reduced salt content by up to 25% while maintaining the desired level of saltiness. The presence of cinnamaldehyde also increased oxidative stability and decreased color changes during storage. The replacement of DE and oleogel in burgers diminished cooking loss, while negatively affected the textural properties. Therefore, further optimization of this strategy could lead to healthier food formulations with reduced fat and salt content.

Plant Antioxidants in Dry Fermented Meat Products with a Healthier Lipid Profile.

Consumers' perception of meat products has changed in recent years, which has led to an increased interest in healthier meat products. In response to this demand, academia and industry have made efforts to reformulate meat products, especially dry fermented meat products, which are known for their high fat contents, mainly saturated fat. The use of plant or marine oils stabilized in emulsion gels (EGs) or oil-bulking agents (OBAs) as animal fat replacers has been one of the most advantageous strategies to reformulate dry fermented meat products with a healthier lipid content (quality and quantity), but an increase in their polyunsaturated fatty acid content can trigger a significant increase in lipid oxidation, negatively affecting sensory and nutritional quality. The use of antioxidants is the main strategy to delay this deteriorative reaction, but the controversy around the safety and toxicity of synthetic antioxidants has driven consumers and industry toward the use of plant antioxidants, such as phenolic compounds, carotenoids, and some vitamins and minerals. This review provides information about the use of plant antioxidants to control lipid oxidation of dry fermented meat products with healthier lipids.

Optimization of Pre-Neutralized Red Palm Olein-canola Oil Emulsion Gel as Animal Fat Replacer for Comminuted Meat Product Using Response Surface Methodology

Red palm olein, which is rich in β carotene, has the potential as an animal fat replacer for the formulation of healthy processed meat products. However, it is mainly composed of saturated fatty acid, which should be reduced by combining it with unsaturated fatty acid-rich vegetable oil. Canola oil was mixed with red palm olein in order to get the benefits from both. The formulation of an emulsion gel made up of red palm olein and canola oil at 30/70 (w/w) was optimized using a response surface methodology. Soy protein isolate (SPI), mono and diglycerides of fatty acids (emulsifier E471, EMS), and inulin (INL) were selected as stabilizer and emulsifier in aqueous phase. Based on formula optimization and validation of gel emulsion ability in the comminuted meat model system, it was concluded that the addition levels of SPI, EMS, and INL required to form gel emulsions with optimal ability to produce comminuted meat products were 5.33%, 0.53% and 3.98% (w/w), respectively.

Microencapsulated Healthy Oil Mixtures to Enhance the Quality of Foal Pâtés.

This study aimed to evaluate the use of microencapsulated oil mixtures as partial animal fat replacers and their effects on the physicochemical, nutritional and sensory qualities of foal pâtés. Three different batches were manufactured: a control (CON) formulation, with foal dorsal subcutaneous fat (30 g/100 g), and treatments 1 and 2 (T1 and T2), with 50% of the animal fat replaced by microcapsules containing algal oil mixed with walnut oil (T1) or pistachio oil (T2). The reformulated samples presented significant (p &lt; 0.001) diminutions of fat contents, which achieved reductions of 34.22% ("reduced fat content") and 28.17% in the T1 and T2 samples, respectively, and the lipid reformulation did not affect (p &gt; 0.05) the texture or lipid oxidation of the samples. Furthermore, both microencapsulated oil mixtures significantly (p &lt; 0.001) reduced (11-15%) saturated fatty acid (SFA) concentrations and increased (p &lt; 0.001) mono- (T2) and polyunsaturated (T1) fatty acid contents (8% and 68%, respectively), contributing to the obtainment of nutritional indices in line with health recommendations. Additionally, consumer acceptability did not display significant (p &gt; 0.05) differences among samples. Hence, the outcomes indicated that the incorporation of these microencapsulated oil mixtures as partial animal fat replacers, especially the T1 mixture, represents a promising strategy to obtain healthier foal pâtés, without compromising consumer approval.

The rheological properties and stability of gelled emulsions applying to κ-carrageenan and methyl cellulose as an animal fat replacement

This study investigated the effects of κ-carrageenan (κ-Car) and methyl cellulose (MC) on the characteristics and stability of gelled single and double emulsion (SE and DE). Gelled SE and DE were consisted with κ-Car (0% or 0.5%, w/w) in the external aqueous phase and MC (0% or 3%, w/w) in the oil phase. The homogenizing process involved at 700 rpm for 3 min using propeller homogenizer and then at 15,000 rpm for 5 min using a high-speed homogenizer. The basic characteristics of emulsion (interfacial tension, droplet size, viscosity, and microstructure), gel properties (viscoelasticity) and stability of emulsion under extreme temperature (creaming index, appearance, and encapsulation stability) were evaluated. The addition of κ-Car and MC decreased the droplet size and increased the viscosity of emulsion as well as formed the thick protective coating. Also, the gelling temperature (Tg) of emulsion containing κ-Car showed at low temperatures below 20 °C, while the Tg of emulsion containing MC showed at high temperatures above 56 °C. Therefore, according to the results of creaming index and encapsulation stability under heating (80 °C for 30 min) and freezing-thawing (−18 °C and −60 °C for 3 d) treatment, the mixed system with κ-Car and MC greatly improved the stability, especially in DE system. These results suggest that the gelled emulsions mixed with κ-Car and MC were very stable under extreme temperatures such as the cooking and frozen storage and may be utilized to animal fat replacements and other industries.

Effects of Hydrocolloid Agar, Gelatin, Pectin, and Xanthan on Physicochemical and Rheological Properties of Pickering Emulsions Stabilized by Canola Protein Microgel as a Potential Animal Fat Replacer

Effects of Hydrocolloid Agar, Gelatin, Pectin, and Xanthan on Physicochemical and Rheological Properties of Pickering Emulsions Stabilized by Canola Protein Microgel as a Potential Animal Fat Replacer

Use of Olive and Sunflower Oil Hydrogel Emulsions as Pork Fat Replacers in Goat Meat Burgers: Fat Reduction and Effects in Lipidic Quality.

Diversified strategies to incorporate healthier lipids in processed meat products are being developed. Alternative fat sources to replace animal fat associated with the reduction of fat content are some of the methods used to obtain healthier meat products well recognized by consumers. In order to create a healthier product that can also be consumed in the Halal and Kosher consumer markets, an experimental study was developed to assess the effects of replacing the pork fat (4%) with the same amount of hydrogel emulsion incorporating olive oil or sunflower oil. Three burgers were randomly selected from each lot manufactured and analyzed in triplicate. Burgers were physicochemical analyzed for pH, water activity, composition, fatty acid profile, color, yield, texture, oxidative stability, and volatile compounds and compared according to the fat source. Burgers with hydrogel emulsions can be considered reduced-fat meat products with a healthier fatty acid profile than pork fat burgers. The use of hydrogel emulsions did not negatively affect the quality characteristics assessed in the product and improved the oxidative stability during the storage of cooked burgers. By the characteristics and formulations evaluated, the replacement of pork fat with olive oil hydrogel emulsion proved to be the most effective strategy for obtaining a healthier goat meat product.

Novel biphasic gels can mimic and replace animal fat in fully-cooked coarse-ground sausage

Four biphasic gels (BPG) were developed and tested as pork fat replacers in coarse-ground fully-cooked sausages. An oleogel (OG) phase (92.5% high-oleic soybean oil, 7.5% rice bran wax) and one of two hydrogel (HG) phases (water and 7% or 8% gelatin) were combined in 7:3 or 6:4 OG:HG ratios, for a total of four test formulations. Control sausages were formulated to 27.5% fat and stored at 0–2 °C for 98 d. BPGs allowed for fat reductions of up to 26%. Visually, all BPGs resembled pork fat. There were no differences in external L* and a* but, internally, controls were darker and redder. Except for one control, there were no differences in Texture Profile Analysis (TPA) hardness, cohesiveness, springiness, and chewiness. Warner-Bratzler Shear (WBS) force was highest in 6:4 samples, which were also highest in Sensory First Bite Firmness and lowest in Smoked Sausage Aroma and Smoked Sausage Flavor. TBARS values remained steady, with no rancid flavors detected by the sensory panel.

Use of oil mixture emulsion hydrogels as partial animal fat replacers in dry-fermented foal sausages

This study aimed to evaluate the influence of partial replacement of animal fat by oil mixture emulsion hydrogels on the quality properties of dry-fermented foal sausages. Three batches were elaborated: control (CON) – 100 % of pork fat; treatments 1 and 2 (T1 and T2) – 50 % of pork fat was replaced by oil mixture emulsions, tigernut (T1) or sesame oils (T2) blended with algal oil. Lipid reformulations reduced (P < 0.001) fat (36.91 % vs about 30 %, for CON and reformulated samples, respectively), and moisture contents (33.57 % vs about 28 %, for CON and reformulated samples, respectively), while darker sausages were obtained. These changes in the both, fat and moisture contents, have an important influence on the texture parameters, since reformulated samples presented higher values of hardness (283–317 N) than control samples (152 N). Both oil emulsion hydrogels favored a decrease (P < 0.001) of saturated fatty acids (34.16 vs 30 g/100 g of fat), an increase (P < 0.001) of mono- (T1) and polyunsaturated (T2) fatty acids (depending on the batch), and an improvement of all health indices as omega-6/omega-3 (n-3/n-6) and polyunsaturated fatty acids/ saturated fatty acid ratios (PUFA/SFA), atherogenic (AI) and thrombogenic (TI) indices and hypocholesterolaemic/hypercholesterolaemic ratio (h/H). T2 seemed to reduce (P < 0.001) the lipid oxidation in the samples, while T1 presented the highest values. On the other hand, the terpenes and terpenoids were the most abundant volatile compounds (VOCs) found in all sausages, mainly due to the use of pepper as flavoring spice. Several differences were observed on the content of different individual VOCs (hydrocarbons, acids, alcohols, aldehydes, etc.) and also in the total VOCs content, due of both, differences in lipid oxidation processes (in accordance with TBARS values) and also the moisture and fat content of the samples. Nevertheless, consumer acceptability resulted to be unaffected (T1) or improved (T2) by the fat reformulation. Thus, overall results pointed out that the use of T2 emulsion hydrogel as a partial animal fat replacer could be a promising strategy to achieve healthier dry-cured foal sausages with high consumers’ approval.

Emulsion gels prepared with chia mucilage and olive oil as a new animal fat replacer in beef patties

Recently, more and more research has focused on the potential application of emulsion gels as animal fat replacers in meat products due to their unique structures and functional properties. This study investigated the physicochemical, nutritional and sensorial characteristics of the low-fat beef patties formulated with emulsion gels elaborated with chia mucilage and olive oil as pork back fat replacer. Beef patties were made with five different fat replacement levels (20%, 40%, 60%, 80%, 100%). The result showed that with the improvement of the fat substitution level, the moisture content of reformulated patties was increased while the fat and protein content were decreased with respect to the control group. The levels of polyunsaturated fatty acids were increased by up to 36% (fat replacement levels at 100%) and the health indices including the polyunsaturated fatty/saturated fatty acid ratio, atherogenicity index, and thrombogenicity index were modified. In addition, the reformulated patties obtained higher lipid stability than the control sample. Significant differences were found in the sensory evaluation (p > 0.05) between the control group and the total pork backfat replacement treatment, while the sensory properties of partial replacement (below 60%) were similar with respect to the control group. Therefore, the addition of emulsion gels ending up giving the beef patties positive characteristics, the partial replacement of pork backfat by emulsion gels is a viable option for developing a low-fat beef patty. Practical Applications Emulsion gels have a great potential for use to replace animal fat in meat products. With the use of chia mucilage-based emulsion gels, it is possible to produce low fat meat products with healthier fatty acid profile. In our research, an emulsion gel elaborated with chia mucilage and olive oil was used in development of the fat-reduced burger formulation. The use of chia mucilage-based emulsion gel is an ideal strategy to develop a healthy meat source for the human diet without negatively affecting the technological and sensory properties of the products.