Renewable Electricity Sources Research Articles

New Concept of Electronically and Protonic Conductive Polymer Structures for the Proton Exchange Membrane Water Electrolysis Produced by Additive Manufacturing

AbstractThe polymer electrolyte membrane (PEM) water electrolysis is a promising technology for the production of hydrogen from water using fluctuating renewable electricity sources. However, the investment cost of the PEM electrolysis technology has to be lowered considerably to achieve a widespread application. Polymer materials can be used as low‐cost materials to solve this issue. However, the conditions within the electrolysis cells are challenging for polymeric materials, especially for materials used within the oxygen‐evolving electrode. This study reports the new concept of electronically and protonic conductive polymer structures for the PEM water electrolysis produced by additive manufacturing and first results of investigations on compounds suitable for this concept.

The role of distinct electricity sources on pollution abatement: Evidence from a wide global panel

In this study, we examine the contribution of nuclear, fossil (coal, oil, and gas), and renewable (hydro, solar, wind, biofuel) electricity sources to pollution in the globalization era, as measured by total greenhouse gases (GHG) produced by electricity per capita. We conduct an empirical investigation in a global panel of 163 countries which assesses both the concurrent and individual effects of alternative energy sources. Additionally, we implement a second model to assess the roles of various electricity sources on the carbon intensity of electricity generation. Robust GMM estimators show that fossil electricity is a major polluter and a driver of carbon intensity. Furthermore, nuclear and renewable energy reduce pollution on a global scale, with wind emerging as the most efficient energy source in the global fight against pollution and climate change. Moreover, globalization as measured by trade openness tends to reduce the carbon intensity of electricity production (CI), whereas biofuels have an increasing impact on CI. The findings have important policy implications, indicating that shifting to nuclear and renewable energy sources could help countries achieve their sustainable development goals more efficiently.

Energy matching: exploring the value of demand flexibility in educational office buildings

This research presents a case study exploring the potential for demand side flexibility at a cluster of university buildings. The study investigates the potential of a collection of various electrical devices, excluding heating and cooling systems. With increasing penetration of renewable electricity sources and the phasing out of dispatchable fossil sources, matching grid generation with grid demand will become difficult using traditional grid management methods alone. Additionally, grid congestion is a pressing problem. Demand side management in buildings may contribute to a solution to these problems. Currently demand response is, however, not yet exploited at scale. In part, this is because it is unclear how this flexibility can be translated into successful business models, or whether this is possible under the current market regime. This research gives insight into the potential value of energy demand flexibility in reducing energy costs and increasing the match between electricity demand and purchased renewable electricity. An inventory is made of on-site electrical devices that offer load flexibility and the magnitude and duration of load shifting is estimated for each group of devices. A demand response simulation model is then developed that represents the complete collection of flexible devices. This model, addresses demand response as a ‘distribute candy’ problem and finds the optimal time-of-use for shiftable electricity demand whilst respecting the flexibility constraints of the electrical devices. The value of demand flexibility at the building cluster is then assessed using this simulation model, measured electricity consumption, and data regarding the availability of purchased renewables and day-ahead spot prices. This research concludes that coordinated demand response of large variety of devices at the building cluster level can improve energy matching by 0.6-1.5% and reduce spot market energy cost by 0.4-3.2%.

Biogas catalytic methanation for biomethane production as fuel in freight transport - A carbon footprint assessment

The use of biomethane can help reduce greenhouse gas emissions (GHG) from road transport in trucks. To assess its potential contribution, two biomethane production pathways were analysed: conventional biogas upgrading and catalytic methanation of carbon dioxide from biogas, contained in biogas or separated via biogas upgrading. Pig manure was used as feedstock for biogas production. Throughout a life cycle assessment methodological approach, the total GHG equivalent emissions were calculated for each production pathway, considering the chemical absorption, pressure swing adoption and membrane separation technologies for biogas upgrading, and renewable sources of electricity (wind and photovoltaic) for hydrogen production further processed in methanation. Catalytic methanation via micro-structured reactors was selected as a reference process. The assessments show that emissions vary from 0.28 to 0.72 kg CO2-eq./m3 in biomethane production via biogas upgrading and from 0.36 to 1.04 kg CO2-eq./m3 via catalytic methanation. These values are comparable to those of natural gas conditioned as fuel for transportation, which lie between 0.038 and 0.55 kg CO2-eq./m3. Due to its emission neutrality, in the use phase of biomethane in trucks total emissions are substantially lower than those associated with fossil fuels (natural gas and diesel). For the investigated use cases, they range from 0.03 to 0.07 kg CO2 -eq./t km for biomethane, whereas for natural gas or diesel from 0.16 to 0.18 kg CO2 -eq./t km and 0.17–0.19 kg CO2-eq./t km. These results demonstrate the environmental benefits of biomethane in freight transport in terms of reduction in GHG emissions.

From microalgae to bioenergy: Identifying optimally integrated biorefinery pathways and harvest scheduling under uncertainties in predicted climate

An emerging renewable energy source from living organisms, microalgae are recognized for its remarkable energy content and continuously receiving interest with a great potential in increasing its shares in fuel market. The main challenge for stable biorefinery operation is cultivation, given that the growth of microalgae is highly dependent on climate conditions, especially ambient temperature, and solar exposure. Herein, an advanced forecasting algorithm predicts daily climate conditions a year ahead. The forecast is then used in a dynamic metaheuristic optimization framework to determine optimal microalgae biorefinery process pathways with promising total annual margins and greenhouse gas emissions. In return, the optimal solution is reported with a total annual margin of 815,716 US$/y and greenhouse gas emission of 1.1 × 107 kg CO2-eqv/y. The most feasible microalgae species among the selection pool are identified in terms of kinetic growth, which is attributed to the climate behavior of the selected case-study region. A scheduling scheme is then identified for the optimal harvest period of cultivated microalgae. Next, uncertainty analysis for the selected process configuration is conducted using Monte Carlo simulation to investigate how variations in climate conditions will affect its overall performance. Additionally, the process is further enhanced by including renewable electricity sources which allow reducing 50% greenhouse gas emissions with the configuration of biomass energy (1.2%), solar power (0.1%), and wind energy (98.7%). In summary, this study provided a comprehensive guidelines on strategically deploying large scale microalgae biorefineries considering its long-term operational sustainability abiding the possible uncertainties within the system proposed.

Renewable energy for carbon footprint reduction of green geopolymers material’s production for built-environment

By replacing regular cement and recycling trash, construction and demolition waste (CDW)-based geopolymers are anticipated to reduce the environmental consequences of the construction sector. However, the preparation of the CDW-based geopolymers involves energy-intensive mechanical, thermal, and chemical processes. Hence, it is critical to quantify its environmental effects in the development phase and suggest substitute sustainable energy options. This study performs the ecological sustainability of newly developed CDW-based materials, identifies its energy hotspots, and analyses the feasibility of photovoltaics, geothermal, wind, biomass, and hydro-based renewable energy resources to reduce the overall carbon footprint of the developed product. The study identified the required electrical energy for CDW crushing and grinding as a hotspot with significant environmental impacts. The study analysed the feasibility of photovoltaics, geothermal, wind, biomass, and hydro-based renewable energy resources to reduce the carbon footprint. Since energy contributes more than 60% to the GWP, AP, EP, and Ecotox Air, a sensitivity analysis is done using various renewable electricity sources.

Fractional Order Controller Design for Wind Turbines

According to recent studies, it has been concluded that renewable electricity generation is being requested to replace all other fuels more often. In China and the USA, among renewable electricity sources, wind usage has increased significantly compared to 2020. Given these circumstances, the aim of this study was to develop a suitable speed control method for wind power systems in order to achieve maximum power generation while reducing mechanical loads. Several control strategies have been proposed in the literature, all of which offer a compromise between performance and robustness. The present research developed fractional order PID (FOPID) controllers and proved which would be the most suitable controller to address the challenges that wind turbine systems face. The parameters of the FOPID controllers (KP, KI, KD, λ and µ) were tuned with the help of the following optimization algorithms: a genetic algorithm (GA), a multi-objective genetic algorithm (MOGA) and particle swarm optimization (PSO). The results from these three turning methods were then compared to find the method that offered the best performance and system robustness.

Cost and Performance Targets for Fully Electrochemical Ammonia Production under Flexible Operation

Methods to produce ammonia from air, water, and renewable electricity are necessary to transition ammonia production away from the CO2-emitting Haber–Bosch process. In this vein, a fully electric process in which water-splitting-derived hydrogen and air-separation-derived nitrogen are reacted in an electrochemical process to produce ammonia is attractive. Herein, we evaluated the cost-effectiveness of large-scale fully electric ammonia production relying on renewable electricity sources in conjunction with different types of storage and flexible operation using a mixed-integer linear programming framework. We found that ammonia can be produced in an economically competitive manner, i.e., at costs < 1 $/kg, at large scales if the electrochemical reactor can produce ammonia at partial currents exceeding 400 mA cm–2, energy efficiencies exceeding 30%, and process lifetimes of several years. In light of this, alternative chemistries that can reduce nitrogen at high rates and moderate (<2.5 V) overpotentials are necessary for economical, fully electrochemical ammonia production.

Shifts in hydropower operation to balance wind and solar will modify effects on aquatic biota

To avoid negative consequences to freshwater biota from climate change, society must complete the transition from fossil to renewable electricity sources. However, temporal patterns in hydropower generation (and flow releases that affect aquatic biota) may change with increased wind and solar penetration. We used power cost modeling to characterize current and future within-day and seasonal patterns in hydropower generation across the Eastern Interconnection in a wet and a dry year. Compared to the baseline, future hydropower generation across the grid decreased during the day and increased before dawn and after dusk. At a project level, such a pattern would suggest ‘double peaking’ operation (up- and down-ramping before dawn and after dusk, with lower releases midday). Variation in generation was higher in wet years than dry years, foreshadowing possible flow constraints on hydropower flexibility. At the grid scale, projected ramping rates were higher in all seasons. A review of the ecological literature suggests that these changes would shift the timing of invertebrate drift and elevate the risk of nest scouring during up-ramping and the risk of stranding or dewatering during down ramping. Thermal conditions may be moderated by increased ramping. Strategies for adapting to future shifts in the renewable portfolio range from re-regulation in reservoir cascades to providing flow refuge (structures and vegetation) below individual projects. Coordinated basin-scale operation can distribute peaking operation to maintain grid support while restricting local ramping at critical ecological times. In addition, research to design hybrid renewable systems that add battery storage is needed to understand how we can mitigate future risks to aquatic communities while promoting the use of renewable energy. This study, which is among the first to examine ecological side-effects of the shift to renewable energy in freshwater ecosystems, lays out a path toward understanding and navigating changes to flow regimes under the energy transition.

Optimisation of Anode Construction for PEM Water Electrolysis

Transformation of energy sector to carbon dioxide neutrality is one of the main goals of governments around the globe. This is closely connected with propagation of Hydrogen Economy scheme, where excess electric energy from renewable sources is stored in the form of hydrogen. Hydrogen is a valuable commodity and promising energy vector with numerous applications not only directly in industry, but also as a fuel for mobility sector. Water electrolyser with polymer electrolyte membrane (PEMWE) represents a key component for hydrogen production within Hydrogen Economy scheme. Among its principal advantages is use of water as a feed, option of operation at elevated pressure, flexibility of operation suitable for pairing with renewable electric sources and very high power to volume ratio, critical for delocalised hydrogen production.Despite these outstanding properties of PEMWE, several shortcomings still limit its application on industrial scale. The main constraint is a high loading of precious metals, especially on the anode, where IrO2 is the state-of-the-art catalyst and anode itself is a component most susceptible to degradation due to highly oxidative, acidic environment. In general, the anode consists of unsupported catalyst nanoparticles based on IrO2 and Ti porous transport layer (PTL), which is often coated with Pt, Au or Ir to prevent its passivation during electrolyser operation. The absence of catalyst support and microporous layer (MPL) on the top of Ti PTL decreases utilisation of catalyst, leading to the use of high catalyst loadings. Despite the significant progress in development of catalyst supports and Ti PTLs with gradient porosity in recent years, the issue of high Ir content and PTL without precious meatal coating passivation is still far from being solved. This presents a bottleneck for further PEMWE application.The goal of this work is to optimise anodic PTL for PEMWE in an efficient and economically feasible way, avoiding coating of PTL by precious metals and decreasing catalyst loading by its better utilisation. This was achieved by preparation of microporous layer on the top of commercially available PTLs, based on Ti felts and sintered Ti. From the materials potentially applicable for MPL, TiH2 was chosen due to its good electron conductivity and material compatibility with PTL. TiH2 is inherently thermodynamically unstable in presence of water and O2, forming non-stoichiometric Ti oxides with significantly lower electron conductivity. However, the rate of TiH2 oxidation at PEMWE operating conditions and impact of this process on cell Ohmic resistance was not yet investigated.MPL based on TiH2 powder was deposited on the surface of Ti PTLs by means of ultrasonically assisted spray deposition from ink. TiH2 was bonded in MPL by ionomer based on perfluorinated-sulfonated polymer. Stability of treated PTLs with and without MPL was investigated by single cell tests performed with in-house made membrane-electrode assembly in catalyst-coated membrane arrangement, consisting of commercial state-of-the-art materials at temperature of 80 °C and constant voltage of 2 V for 120 h. During single cell operation, its performance was periodically investigated by polarisation curves and impedance spectroscopy, performed at selected voltages. Impact of MPL of PEMWE performance is discussed in term of cell performance, Ohmic resistance and polarisation resistances.This study was supported by the Grant Agency of the Czech Republic under project no. GC20–06422J.

(Energy Technology Division Graduate Student Award sponsored by BioLogic) Voltage as a Driving Force for Ammonia Activation

In chemical synthesis, the making and breaking of chemical bonds often requires traversing large energy differences. In fact, in 2012 the basic chemical industry accounted for close to 20% of total delivered energy consumption in the industrial sector, which itself used the most delivered energy of any end-use sector globally (54%). Traditionally, industrial chemical synthesis has relied on pressure and temperature to drive chemical reactions, and the energy to elevate the pressure and temperature generally comes from fossil fuel sources. These chemical reactors also often require centralized locations so that economies of scale make them profitable (e.g., ammonia synthesis). However, with the advent of distributed and accessible renewable electricity, it is attractive to consider driving chemical reactions that are conventionally driven with temperature and pressure with renewable electricity instead. Electrochemical reactors can be driven at mild temperatures and pressures and can take advantage of renewable electricity sources directly, enabling decentralized manufacturing. Thus, electrification of the chemical industry offers an opportunity to further integrate the chemical and energy industries, motivating and leveraging decentralized renewable energy sources and storage for chemical manufacturing. In this talk, I will first look at the broad question of how to compare electrochemical routes with traditional thermochemical routes for chemical transformations, aiming to answer the question “If I can apply mechanical energy (pressure), thermal energy (temperature), or electrical energy (voltage) to a chemical reaction, which should I use?” I will present a framework for comparing voltage, temperature, and pressure as thermodynamic driving forces to help quantitatively discriminate between energy sources. Second, I will discuss electrochemical utilization of ammonia. Ammonia has one of the largest global production rates by volume, and it is a nexus synthesis molecule: it either directly or indirectly provides nitrogen for a range of molecules including specialty chemicals, polymers, and pharmaceuticals. Ammonia is also attractive as an energy-dense, carbon-free fuel. Because of this, it represents an important target for electrification. I will discuss the kinetics of ammonia electro-oxidation, i.e., the breaking of the nitrogen-hydrogen bonds, as well as how an applied potential can help form carbon-nitrogen bonds, an electrochemical analogue to traditional reductive amination. Last, I will propose an energy storage paradigm that leverages ammonium formate, a combination of ammonia and formic acid, to store renewable electricity. I will discuss the advantages of this fuel and demonstrate how voltage can aid in the release of energy from this fuel. Overall, I will start with the broad question of why and when to use voltage in the chemical transformations, and then I will focus on how electrochemistry can aid in ammonia utilization for both synthesis reactions and energy storage purposes.

Studies on the conceptual design of energy recovery and utility systems for electrified chemical processes

Industrial energy systems under electrified heating were examined to understand the techno-economic impact of electrification on the supply of heat at the process level and the management of heat and power at the site level. Two case studies for chemical production were conducted to discuss the possible designs of electrified heat supply for processing industries and to compare the characteristics of heat recovery networks and utility systems under electrification with those under conventional fossil-fuel energy systems. The application of the heat-integrated design method is effective in providing design strategies for the transformation to electrified energy systems, as well as in evaluating plant-wide implications of electrification in practice. The design interaction between heat recovery and electrification was also investigated, and the cost-effectiveness of electrified energy systems was found to be highly influenced by heat recovery. The current study demonstrated that industrial electrification can be a practical alternative for industrial energy supply and that electrified heating can be economical with a low-cost and renewable source of electricity.

Impact of Cloud, Rain, Humidity, and Wind Velocity on PV Panel Performance

Before the invention of solar panels, solar energy had been used for millions of years. To survive and increase many forms of life, people rely on sunlight. For example, use sunlight for warmth and have only recently begun to use the sun's energy to generate renewable and sustainable electricity. The widespread use of photovoltaic PV systems as a source of renewable energy-derived electricity has prompted researchers to investigate the factors that influence their performance. This paper presents an analytical study for assessing the performance of a 120 Wp PV module. This experiment was conducted at Al-Nasiriyah city ( 31.03 N, 46.16E ). At 180˚ south, and 45˚ elevation, the solar panel is omitted. Using solar panels, solar energy is converted into electrical energy that can power an entire building. The power production from the solar panel depends on several identified factors. In February and June, the solar panel tested the effect of cloud cover, rain, relative humidity and wind velocity. On rainy and cloudy days, average power and irradiance are reduced by 93.32 %, 93.77 %, and 79.97 %, 77.34 %, respectively, when compared to power and irradiance on a clear day (8th February) 693 W/m2 and 76.55 W. Humidity has an inverse relationship with voltage, current, and power. It means that as humidity rises, the value of voltage, current, and power decreases. The performance of a solar panel is directly proportional to the wind velocity. The temperature is inversely proportional to wind velocity, i.e. as wind velocity increases, the temperature of the solar cell module decreases. The results of this study have been analyzed and discussed.

Optimisation of energy usage and carbon emissions monitoring using MILP for an advanced anaerobic digester plant

This paper proposes a realistic model for energy and carbon management of an advanced municipal wastewater treatment works. Through minimisation of total cost of operations, it provides operators with a visual daily operational schedule based on varying tariffs. This site is the first in the UK with a mixed operational strategy for biomethane produced on site: to burn in CHP (Combined Heat and Power) engines to create electricity, burn in Steam Boilers for onsite steam use or inject the biomethane into the gas distribution network - Natural Gas can be imported to make up shortfalls in biomethane if required. Implemented using a novel mixed integer linear programming (MILP) approach, results indicate that biomethane injection should be maximised for the highest financial gain - the driving force for optimising the remaining operations being the site electricity imports and whether the electricity imported ‘generates’ carbon emissions. Based on the source of electricity and the new carbon emissions performance criteria, under the current operational strategy importing electricity from carbon-based sources has no tangible impact on site revenues (but does impact CO2 emissions), however carbon free (renewable) electricity sources could see shift in operations leading a revenue increase of 12%

Assessment of variable solar- and grid electricity-driven power-to-hydrogen integration with direct iron ore reduction for low-carbon steel making

Power-to-gas (PtG) technologies offer a promising approach for decarbonization of energy-intensive industries, particular the iron and steel (I&S) sector, which depends on specific chemical feedstock and processes that are not currently directly electrifiable. However, PtG implementation faces challenges in the medium term related to the carbon footprint of electricity networks, decoupling process applications from variable renewable energy inputs, and economic feasibility. In this study, the design, energy, emissions, cost, and hourly operation of a power-to-hydrogen (PtH2)-based direct reduction of iron (DRI)-electric arc furnace (EAF) system, are investigated for solar energy-rich conditions in the near- to medium term (2030) with the intent to facilitate the deployment of low-carbon DRI-EAF steel making. A plant hourly operating and sizing methodology is developed based on PtH2 and use of renewable, low-cost solar photovoltaic (PV) electricity and H2 storage to counteract grid emissions and cost. The analysis approach is generically applicable to different solar-rich locations and other variable renewable electricity sources. For base-case system design/operating conditions, the emission intensity of the PtH2-I&S process is found to be abated from 890 to 567 kgCO2/tLS (∼36%), in absence of EAF scrap steel use, relative to the use of grid electricity only with no H2 storage, with a slight reduction in the levelized of cost steel (CLS) at 618 USD/tLS. Relative to conventional natural gas (NG)-DRI-EAF and blast/oxygen furnace (BF-BOF) processes, emission intensity is reduced by ∼43–60% and ∼53–74%, respectively. At off-base case PV and water electrolysis capacities, steel making emission intensity reductions of ∼40% relative to conventional NG DRI-EAF are achievable at normalized PV capacities, α = 3, relative to the plant nominal hourly electricity demand, and normalized electrolysis capacities, β ≥ 1.3, relative to the nominal hourly capacity requirement, while maintaining CLS within less than +25% of NG DRI-EAF. Based on the performance improvement and cost reduction potential for electrolysis and solar PV, the sub-space of normalized PV and electrolysis capacities yielding a ∼40% reduction in emission intensity within the above CLS limit would be significantly enlarged towards lower PV capacities (α ≥ 2) and electrolysis capacities (β ≥ 1.2).

Emergy investigation of carbon dioxide utilization processes for methanol synthesis

CO2 to methanol (C2M) technology has been a promising sustainable solution with negative carbon emissions. A suitable indicator is needed to ensure that it demonstrates the progress in moving toward a zero-net emission. This study proposed an emergy analysis of three alternative methanol productions from captured CO2. These are methanol from direct hydrogenation with hydrogen from natural gas reforming (Case 1), methanol from direct hydrogenation with hydrogen from water electrolysis (Case 2), and methanol from CO2/NG/steam-mixed reforming (Case 3). The highest emergy consumption per joule methanol (with a transformity of 2.93 ×105 sej/J) was Case 2. According to emergy distribution, the emergy input that dominates each case study includes; natural gas (as raw material and fuels) in Case 1 and Case 3 and electricity for water electrolysis in Case 2. When comparing transformity with conventional methanol production from fossil fuel, the CO2 to methanol processes could compete with the traditional one. Moreover, with the implementation of renewable electrical sources (wind power), the transformity of Case 2 could be reduced to 4.95 × 104 sej/J and became lower than the methanol production from biomass (7.87 ×104 sej/J). This improvement leads Case 2 to be the preferable choice for methanol production.

Valorization of coal mine effluents — Challenges and economic opportunities

Coal-mine effluent treatment has the potential to both reduce the environmental impact of the effluent and provide economic opportunities by recovering valuable minerals and clean water. In this study, we modeled a novel treatment process, which includes nanofiltration (NF), two-step crystallization, reverse osmosis (RO), electrodialysis (ED), multi-effect distillation (MED), and a NaCl crystallizer, and performed a techno-economic analysis of its full-scale implementation, using a circular economy approach. We estimated the thermal and electrical energy consumption to be 745.5 kWhth/tonNaCl and 565.1 kWhel/tonNaCl (or 13.6 kWhth and 10.3 kWhel per m3 of feed effluent), respectively. The levelized cost of the NaCl salt that accounts for the revenue from the plant's co-products (Mg(OH)2, CaSO4 and, pure water) was estimated to be 203 USD/tonNaCl. The economic viability of the treatment chain can be improved by using renewable electricity sources, reducing the total expenditure on NF and RO, and integrating alternate technologies into the treatment plant.

Estimation of loads for off-grid solar photovoltaic systems

Solar power is a renewable energy technology that turns sunlight into electricity using solar panels. The generated electricity can be stored or utilized immediately, returned to the grid, or combined with a renewable electricity source or several renewable technologies solar energy systems are a supply that is both dependable and environmentally friendly of energy that may be used for a range of applications, including commercial, industry, farming, and livestock needs. The system requires practically no maintenance, making it perfect for isolated locations. The near-zero operating costs outweigh the initial hefty installation costs. When evaluated at an ambient temperature of 25°C, a typical photovoltaic (PV) module outputs power with a maximum output voltage of roughly 17V. However, on a very warm day, it can drop to around 15V, and on a very freezing day, it can drop to around 15V, it can soar to 18V.

Liquid Metal Battery for Energy Storage

The world is shifting towards renewable energy sources as it is well known that we are running out of conventional sources. But renewable sources are seasonal they are not available constantly all the time. This brings us the need for storage devices capable of handling huge power grids. From considering the above factor we came up with a new type of battery called Liquid Metal Battery. These batteries are possible candidates for massive and economically feasible large-scale stationary storage and as such could be key components of future energy systems based mainly or exclusively on intermittent renewable electricity sources. The project at hand focuses on the possible material selection for making the battery, Cell chemistry, modelling of battery voltage and finally making a physical working model of the Liquid Metal Battery. All these followed with obtaining the designed battery's performance characteristics, allowing for more insight. Finally, the main intention for the development of this battery is for powering huge loads like cities when a large deficit exists between power generation from renewable sources and demand. Thereby reducing the requirement for conventional sources. Keywords—Cell Volage, Anode material, Cathode Material, Electrolyte, Outer Casing, Deep Cycling, Open Circuit Voltage

Energy Prices Impact on Inflationary Spiral

Energy constitutes an essential share of costs across any economy. The percentage of electricity in the overall energy consumption is steadily increasing. This increase, however, is not reflected correctly in the consumption basket relevant for measuring inflation and, therefore, for monetary policy formulation. We argue that the energy mix reflected in inflation should be revised in favour of electricity. We present an analysis of inflationary pressures across Europe and decompose the impact of energy categories on headline inflation. Building on the inflation expectations framework, this study examines the characteristics and magnitude of the current energy price dynamics and quantifies its share in the countries’ effective inflation. Our research also confirms a compelling insight into the country’s energy structure and inflationary pressures when a larger share of renewable electricity sources proves to be associated with lower inflation. Finally, we argue that the energy price shock cannot be viewed as a one-shot event as in the case of oil price shocks in the past. We draw recommendations for monetary policy formulation. The implication of renewable sources on inflation should be of interest to policymakers, especially in times of high, almost galloping inflation rates in some European countries, unstable fossil energy sources supply due to geopolitical instability, and climate crisis.