European Renewable Energy Research Articles

Optimising the Environmental Sustainability of Short Rotation Coppice Biomass Production for Energy

Background and Purpose: Solid biomass from short rotation coppice (SRC) has the potential to significantly contribute to European renewable energy targets and the expected demand for wood for energy, driven mainly by market forces and supported by the targets of national and European energy policies. It is expected that in the near future the number of hectares under SRC will increase in Europe. Besides producing biomass for energy, SRC cultivation can result in various benefits for the environment if it is conducted in a sustainable way. This paper provides with an overview of these environmental benefits. Discussion and Conclusions: The review of existing literature shows that SRC helps to improve water quality, enhance biodiversity, prevent erosion, reduce chemical inputs (fertilizers, pesticides) and mitigate climate change due to carbon storage. To promote and disseminate environmentally sustainable production of SRC, based on existing literature and own project experience, a set of sustainability recommendations for SRC production is developed. In addition to numerous environmental benefits, sustainable SRC supply chains can bring also economic and social benefits. However, these aspects of sustainability are not addressed in this paper since they are often country specific and often rely on local conditions and policies. The sustainable practices identified in this manuscript should be promoted among relevant stakeholder to stimulate sustainable local SRC production.

A pan-European planning basis for estimating the very shallow geothermal energy potentials

After the Fukushima nuclear disaster, renewable energy resources have become increasingly important in Europe. Based on available pedological, climatological, topographical, and administrative data sets we analysed the pan-European very shallow geothermal energy potentials (vSGP) on a mapping scale of 1:250,000. International standards and unified spatial processing methods across Europe ensure comparability and seamless visualisation. An open source WebGIS dynamically serves spatially explicit maps of all input and result datasets. The results show unconstrained potential areas for exploitation where the thermal conductivity (W/m*K) varies between 0.8 W/m*K and 1.2 W/m*K within the soil matrix. Depending on parameters such as grain size distribution and humidity, the highest potentials for vSGP exploitation were found in Liechtenstein, Finland, Iceland, and Norway. With over 50% of the respective country affected, Andorra, Montenegro and Slovenia have the highest values assigned with a limitation for vSGP exploitation. The interactive tool for online searching, discovering and analysing the vSGP provide public, planners, and (non)-governmental organisations with information. This place based modelling approach is considered as an input to the National Renewable Energy Action Plans (NREAPs), contributing to the European Renewable Energy Sources (RES) Directive.

Life cycle assessment of biofuels in the European Renewable Energy Directive: a combination of approaches?

The European Renewable Energy Directive (RED) was produced by the European Parliament and the Council of the European Union to promote the uptake of energy from renewable resources by participating member states. It sets greenhouse gas (GHG) saving targets for renewable transport fuels and dictates the method by which this should be calculated. This study examines the life cycle assessment (LCA) methodology set out in the RED and compares it to attributional and consequential assessments. A case study of wheat-based bioethanol is used to illustrate how differences in methodology affect the GHG emission results. The results show that GHG emissions from wheat bioethanol are lowest when calculated under the RED, and highest when substitution credits are applied. The RED has been shown to not only combine attributional LCA and consequential LCA approaches but also to contain rules for specific co-products. For example, cereal residues are not allocated GHG emissions from cultivation, and exported electricity ...

Energy production from biogas in the Italian countryside: Modernization vs. repeasantization

Italy is experiencing a proliferation of biogas energy plants. In only a few years, the number of plants has grown from ten to nearly five hundred. Public policies have played an important role in stimulating and shaping the spread of biogas plants. Following the European Renewable Energy Directive (2009/28/EC) Italian public policy began to support the spread of biogas with a system of obligations and incentives. This system, combined with a rigid institutional framework, has shaped the organizational models adopted by farms for biogas technology implementation. From the point of view of sociological investigation, the article investigates the two main agricultural biogas organizational models: modernization and repeasantization. We present the two models through the study of two empirical cases, which highlight how different ways to introduce new technologies on farms can lead to different outcomes in ecological terms.

International and domestic uses of solid biofuels under different renewable energy support scenarios in the European Union

This article describes the development of a geographic information systems (GIS) based biomass transport analysis tool BIT-UU used in combination with the European renewable energy model Green-X. BIT-UU calculates cost and GHG emissions from lowest cost routes, using intermodal transport (by road, rail, inland waterways and sea) between origins of supply and demand destinations. With the developed biomass trade module in Green-X, the role of bioenergy can be evaluated in the larger context of renewable energy deployment. The modeling framework takes into account the current and future energy policies at EU and country levels, competition with alternative sources of renewable energy (e.g. photovoltaic, wind) and sectors (electricity, heat, transport fuels) as well as competition between EU member states for the same biomass resources. Scenario projections to 2020 are used to demonstrate the developed modeling framework. According to these scenarios, biomass from domestic supply remains the most important source of bioenergy (91–93% in 2020). However, the role of traded solid biomass will become increasingly important. With a business as usual scenario, assuming continuation of current renewable energy policies to 2020, the binding renewable energy targets will not be achieved, but trade of solid biomass will still increase up to 451PJ in 2020. In the scenario that meets the conditions to achieve the 20% renewable energy target in 2020, traded solid biomass is projected to increase to 440PJ if sustainability criteria are applied (minimum GHG saving) and 506PJ without these sustainability regulations. Because imports of solid biomass from outside the EU are projected to become larger than intra-EU trade in the scenarios, the scenarios show the importance of improving the representation of extra-EU biomass sources and trade in the modeling framework.

Social acceptance of renewable energy: Some examples from Europe and Developing Africa

Current energy systems are in most instances not fully working sustainably. The provision and use of energy only consider limited resources, risk potential or financial constraints on a limited scale. Furthermore, the knowledge and benefits are only available for a minor group of the population or are outright neglected. The availability of different resources for energy purposes determines economic development, as well as the status of the society and the environment. The access to energy grids has an impact on socio-economic living standards of communities. This not fully developed system is causing climate change with all its related outcomes. This investigation takes into consideration different views on renewable energy systems — such as international discussions about biomass use for energy production, “fuel versus food”, biogas use — and attempts to compare major prospects of social acceptance of renewable energy in Europe and Africa. Can all obstacles to the use of renewable energy be so profound ...

European renewable energy directive: Critical analysis of important default values and methods for calculating greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions of palm oil biodiesel

Purpose The aim of this paper is to evaluate assumptions and data used in calculations related to palm oil produced for biodiesel production relative to the European Renewable Energy Directive (EU-RED). The intent of this paper is not to review all assumptions and data, but rather to evaluate whether the methodology is applied in a consistent way and whether current default values address relevant management practices of palm oil production systems.

'Inverted' Principal-Agent as a New Tool to Explain the Implementation of the European Renewable Energy Policy

The Paper tries to explain the incomplete or lacking implementation of the European directives in the member states.

Promotion of Electricity from Renewable Energy in Europe Post 2020—The Economic Benefits of Cooperation

The availability of renewable energies differs significantly across European regions. Consequently, European cooperation in the deployment of renewable energy potentially yields substantial efficiency gains. However, for achieving the 2020 renewable energy targets, most countries purely rely on domestic production. In this paper, we analyze the benefits of cooperation compared to continuing with national renewable energy support after 2020. We use an optimization model of the European electricity system and find that compared to a 2030 CO2-only target (−40 % compared to 1990), electricity system costs increase by 5 to 7 % when a European-wide renewable energy target for electricity generation (of 55 %) is additionally implemented. However, these additional costs are 41 to 45 % lower than the additional costs which would arise if the renewable energy target was reached through national support schemes (without cooperation). Furthermore, the cost reduction achieved by cooperation is quite robust with regard to assumptions about interconnector extensions and investment cost developments of renewable energy technologies. In practice, however, administrative issues and questions concerning the fair sharing of costs and benefits between the Member States represent major obstacles that need to be tackled in order to reach renewable energy targets at the lowest costs possible.

Predicting the impacts of bioenergy production on farmland birds

Meeting European renewable energy production targets is expected to cause significant changes in land use patterns. With an EU target of obtaining 20% of energy consumption from renewable sources by 2020, national and local policy makers need guidance on the impact of potential delivery strategies on ecosystem goods and services to ensure the targets are met in a sustainable manner. Within agroecosystems, models are available to explore consequences of such policy decisions for food, fuel and fibre production but few can describe the effect on biodiversity. This paper describes the integration and application of a farmland bird population model within a geographical information system (GIS) to explore the consequences of land use changes arising from different strategies to meet renewable energy production targets. Within a 16,000ha arable dominated case study area in England, the population growth rates of 19 farmland bird species were predicted under baseline land cover, a scenario maximising wheat production for bioethanol, and a scenario focused on mix of bioenergy sources. Both scenarios delivered renewable energy production targets for the region (>12kWh per person per day) but, despite differences in resultant landscape composition, the response of the farmland bird community as a whole to each scenario was small and broadly similar. However, this similarity in overall response masked significant intra- and inter-specific variations across the study area and between scenarios suggesting contrasting mechanisms of impact and highlighting the need for context dependent, species-level assessment of land use change impacts. This framework provides one of the first systematic attempts to spatially model the effect of policy driven land use change on the population dynamics of a suite of farmland birds. The GIS framework also facilitates its integration with other ecosystem service models to explore wider synergies and trade offs arising from national or local policy interventions.

Working out the energy efficiency and sustainability equation for the wood fuel chip sector?

The rapid development of renewable energies in Europe requires accurate knowledge of the resources and of the consequences of their utilisation. The various sources must be evaluated in terms of energy performance but also for their sustainability .T his study considers the production of forest biomass particularly in the form of wood fuel chips. The aim is to develop am ethod for evaluating the energy balance and the mineral export according to various management scenarios along the production chain. Fo rt hat purpose, as imulator was developed, covering the entir ep rocess, from felling of the trees in the forest to the delivery of the chips to the end user .T he simulation tool, named ForEnerChips, is implemented on the softwar ep latform CAPSIS, and is first connected to the growth and yield simulator FAGACEES. In the final stage, the simulation tool is used to evaluate and compar ev arious production and supply scenarios that ar er epresentativ eo fc urrent trends or serve to explor ep otential alternativ ep ractices.

Comparison of Different Wood Species as Raw Materials for Bioenergy

Background and Purpose: Most projections of the global energy use predict that biomass will be an important component of primary energy sources in the coming decades. Short rotation plantations have the potential to become an important source of renewable energy in Europe because of the high biomass yields, a good combustion quality as solid fuel, ecological advantages and comparatively low biomass production costs. Materials and Methods: In this study, the wood of black locust Robinia pseudoacacia, white willow Salix alba L., poplars Populus deltoides and Populus x euramericana cl.I-214, aged eight years were examined. Immediately after the felling, sample discs were taken to assess moisture content, ash content, the width of growth rings, wood densities and calorific values, according to the standard methodology. Results: The mean values of willow, poplar and black locust wood density were 341 kg/m3, 336 kg/m3 and 602 kg/m3, respectively. The average heating values of willow poplar and black locust wood were 18.599 MJ/kg, 18.564 MJ/kg and 21.196 MJ/kg, respectively. The FVI index (average values) was higher for black locust (17.186) than for poplar and willow clones, which were similar: 11.312 and 11.422 respectively. Conclusions: Black locust wood with a higher density, calorific value and ash content compared to poplar and willow wood proved to be a more suitable raw material as RES. However, it is very important, from the aspect of the application of wood of these tree species as RES, to also consider the influence of the biomass yield per unit area of the plantations established as “energy plantations”.

A sequential Monte Carlo model of the combined GB gas and electricity network

A Monte Carlo model of the combined GB gas and electricity network was developed to determine the reliability of the energy infrastructure. The model integrates the gas and electricity network into a single sequential Monte Carlo simulation. The model minimises the combined costs of the gas and electricity network, these include gas supplies, gas storage operation and electricity generation. The Monte Carlo model calculates reliability indices such as loss of load probability and expected energy unserved for the combined gas and electricity network. The intention of this tool is to facilitate reliability analysis of integrated energy systems. Applications of this tool are demonstrated through a case study that quantifies the impact on the reliability of the GB gas and electricity network given uncertainties such as wind variability, gas supply availability and outages to energy infrastructure assets. Analysis is performed over a typical midwinter week on a hypothesised GB gas and electricity network in 2020 that meets European renewable energy targets. The efficacy of doubling GB gas storage capacity on the reliability of the energy system is assessed. The results highlight the value of greater gas storage facilities in enhancing the reliability of the GB energy system given various energy uncertainties.

Growth and renewable energy in Europe: Benchmarking with data envelopment analysis

This paper conducts data envelopment analysis (DEA) for the purpose of calculating inefficiencies in the European countries' growth using as main inputs the variables typically used in the growth-energy literature nexus such as energy consumption, carbon emissions, employment and capital but also with a particular focus on renewable energy sources (RES) consumption. Since we have a panel data set, we also apply the Malmquist method to calculate total factor productivity and an analysis of peers. Mean overall efficiency has been calculated to be equal to 0.892, while mean pure technical efficiency is 0.569 and scale efficiency 1.798. Countries with remarkable renewable energy performance have medium to low efficiency, while renewable energy laggards are among the most technically efficient countries in Europe. Results from this paper are useful for monitoring and benchmarking purposes with respect to their 2020 renewable energy obligations stemming from 2009/28/ED Directive.

Social sustainability in certification schemes for biofuel production: an explorative analysis against the background of land use constraints in Brazil

This article examines the scope of voluntary certification schemes, based on the sustainability criteria of the European Renewable Energy Directive for biofuel production in the context of social sustainability and land use issues in Brazil. Possibilities and limitations of such certification schemes are discussed against the background of the rapid-changing Brazilian agricultural sector. Brazil was chosen as a case study being both one of the first countries where ethanol certification projects are implemented and a potential certified ethanol-exporting country. To capture social effects concerning land use connected to an increased ethanol production, semi-structured expert interviews were conducted within an explorative approach in Sao Paulo in the years 2011 and 2012. The study addresses the following question: what is the scope of certification concerning social sustainability in the light of a rising demand on agricultural land? An increasing demand for biofuels and other agricultural goods, as cash crops, leads to a concentration process of agricultural production. Land price hikes in infrastructural well-connected agricultural areas and the uneven distribution of land in Brazil are leading to newly arising negative effects on social sustainability. We assume that certification schemes have a limited scope in the above mentioned environments. As the scale of certification schemes is based on production-chain-governance, indirect and macro effects concerning social sustainability in Brazil cannot be addressed by this instrument. Hence, there is a strong need for comprehensive public regulation on land use issues on a national and international level in order to flank land use concentration in dynamic agricultural sectors, such as the Brazilian one.

Will the introduction of renewable energy in Europe lead to CO2 reduction without nuclear energy?

Will the introduction of renewable energy in Europe lead to CO2 reduction without nuclear energy?

Global biomass potentials under sustainability restrictions defined by the European Renewable Energy Directive 2009/28/EC

AbstractThe political will to reduce global GHG emissions has largely contributed to increased global biofuel production and trade. The expanding cultivation of energy crops may drive changes in the terrestrial ecosystems such as land cover and biodiversity loss. When biomass replaces fossil energy carriers, sustainability criteria are therefore crucial to avoid adverse impacts and ensure a net positive GHG balance. The European Union has set mandatory sustainability criteria for liquid biofuels in its Renewable Energy Directive (RED) 2009/28/EC to ensure net positive impacts of its biofuel policy. The adoption of sustainability criteria in other world regions and their extension to solid and gaseous biomass in the EU is ongoing. This paper examines the effect of the EU RED sustainability criteria on the availability of biomass resources at global and regional scale. It quantifies the relevance of sustainability criteria in biomass resource assessments taking into account the criteria's spatial distribution. This assessment does not include agricultural and forestry residues and aquatic biomass. Previously unknown interrelations between sustainability criteria are examined and described for ten world regions. The analysis concludes that roughly 10% (98.5 EJ) of the total theoretical potential of 977.2 EJ occurs in areas free of sustainability concerns.

Reaching 10% renewable transportation fuels in 2020 by electric-vehicles in Styria/Austria

Electric-vehicles have the potential for a significant substitution of diesel and gasoline vehicles, and contribute to a reduction of greenhouse gas (GHG) and particulate matter emissions. According to the European Renewable Energy Directive, the share of renewable transportation fuels should be 10% in 2020. In the project “Styrian e-mobility in 2020” the potential for reaching the target of 10% renewable fuels in 2020 has been determined by analysing different implementation scenarios. Based on a life cycle analysis, GHG and particulate matter emissions from transport services have been calculated and their potential reductions in emissions by the introduction of electric vehicles by 2020 have been determined. Reaching the European target of 10% renewable fuels in the passenger car sector by 2020 is possible with 30,700 electric-vehicles (5% of passenger cars) if the share of the additional electricity is above 50% from renewable energy and the same amount of transportation biofuel of 7% used as today.

Potential of genetically modified oilseed rape for biofuels in Austria: Land use patterns and coexistence constraints could decrease domestic feedstock production

Like other EU Member States, Austria will meet the substitution target of the EU European Renewable Energy Directive for transportation almost exclusively by first generation biofuels, primarily biodiesel from oilseed rape (OSR). Genetically modified (GM) plants have been promoted as a new option for biofuel production as they promise higher yield or higher quality feedstock. We tested implications of GM OSR application for biodiesel production in Austria by means of high resolution spatially explicit simulation of 140 different coexistence scenarios within six main OSR cropping regions in Austria (2400 km2). We identified structural land use characteristics such as field size, land use diversity, land holding patterns and the proportion of the target crop as the predominant factors which influence overall production of OSR in a coexistence scenario. Assuming isolation distances of 800 m and non-GM-OSR proportions of at least 10% resulted in a loss of area for cultivation of OSR in all study areas ranging from −4.5% to more than −25%, depending on the percentage of GM farmers and on the region. We could show that particularly the current primary OSR cropping regions are largely unsuitable for coexistence and would suffer from a net loss of OSR area even at isolation distances of 400 or 800 m. Coexistence constraints associated with application of GM OSR are likely to offset possible GM gains by substantially reducing farmland for OSR cultivation, thus contradicting the political aim to increase domestic OSR area to meet the combined demands of food, feed and biofuel production.

A comparison of the European renewable energy directive default emission values with actual values from operating biodiesel facilities for sunflower, rape and soya oil seeds in Italy

The European Union (EU) set a binding greenhouse gas (GHG) emission reduction target for transportation biofuels and other bioliquids. In this study, the GHG emissions of biodiesel chain from sunflower, rapeseed and soybean were calculated in compliance with the European Union Renewable Energy Directive 2009/28/EC (RED).Input data used for the agricultural step were referred to the Umbrian region for sunflower and rapeseed and to the Veneto region for soybean, while data obtained from the main Italian biodiesel plants were employed for the processing step. Results showed that GHG emissions were higher than default values reported in the RED for sunflower and rapeseed and lower for soybean. Only sunflower biodiesel does not reach the minimum value of GHG saving (35%). The main differences with data used in the RED concern cultivation step, while the processing step has overall the same values of GHG emissions. Finally, three case studies were examined in order to identify possible improvements to make the analyzed supply chains more sustainable.