Removal Of Free Fatty Acids Research Articles

Free Fatty Acid Removal on Palm Oil Sludge using Heterogeneous Solid Catalyst derived from Palm Empty Fruit Bunch

The present research investigated the activity of catalysts from biomass waste derived from Palm Empty Fruit Bunch (PEFB). An important factor for assessing the feasibility of biodiesel production is related to its economic evaluation. The sludge of Palm Oil (SPO) is generated from palm oil processing industry. SPO was potentially as biodiesel feedstocks due to its low price. The investigation of free fatty acid esterification reactions on SPO with methanol was conducted in this research. Recently, a new strategy of preparing a heterogeneous solid catalyst from biomass wastes has been developed. The parametric investigation was carried out by varying the molar ratio of methanol to SPO catalyst to oil (8:1 - 14:1), the amounts of catalyst (0.5 - 5 wt. % SPO), and the reaction temperatures (40 - 60 °C). It is concluded that the optimum conditions of esterification reactions were acquired at molar ratio of methanol to SPO catalyst to oil 12:1, the amounts of catalyst 5 wt. % of SPO, and the reaction temperature of 60 °C.

Effect of Ethylene Glycol as Pore Former on Polyphenylsulfone Hollow Fiber Membrane for Crude Palm Oil Deacidification through Membrane Contactor

In this study, polyphenylsulfone (PPSU) hollow fiber membrane was fabricated via a wet spinning method with the addition of ethylene glycol (EG) in the range of 0-10 wt% as the additive. The EG was added to improve the membrane pore formation and interconnectivity for better membrane contactor performance in extracting and removing the free fatty acid (FFA) from crude palm oil (CPO). Four different hollow fiber membranes consisted of 14PPSU-0EG, 14PPSU-2EG, 14PPSU-6EG and 14PPSU-10EG were characterized for their morphologies, wettability and pore sizes. From the characterization, it was proven that the presence of EG has promoted the formation of more uniform interconnected finger-like structure with double-layer membrane morphology. In membrane contactor performance testing, sodium hydroxide (NaOH) was used as liquid extractant due to the high affinity of free fatty acid (FFA) towards NaOH. Unfortunately, the new developed PPSU hollow fiber membrane with the presence of EG has significantly (P<0.05) reduced the membrane contactor performance from 16.54% FFA removal using 14PPSU-0EG to less than 5% FFA removal in the treated CPO permeate after 3 hours operation. It may be due to a significant (P<0.05) reduction in membrane hydrophobicity which reduced the oil wettability and interfacial contact between CPO and NaOH at the membrane interface. Nevertheless, no soap formation was detected in the permeate collection.

Deacidification and ethyl biodiesel production from acid soybean oil using a strong anion exchange resin

The objective of this work was to investigate simultaneously the deacidification and the ethyl biodiesel production from soybean oil using the Amberlyst A26 OH anion exchange resin. The behavior of the process was investigated as a function of resin loading, ethanol concentration and initial free fatty acids (FFAs) content. To obtain the acidified oil, degummed soybean oil and commercial linoleic acid were mixed. The Langmuir model was able to better describe the FFAs adsorption isotherms in comparison to the Freundlich equation. A high removal of FFAs with high deacidification rate could be obtained using lower initial ratios of FFAs per mass of dry resin, being this the more favorable condition for oil deacidification. Ester formation showed to be affected by the resin loading, initial FFA content and ethanol concentration in the medium. The adsorption of FFAs seemed to deactivate the catalytic activity of the resin sites. For this reason, a high resin loading was required, although it was still possible to obtain a satisfactory biodiesel production. The present work makes possible deeper understanding of oil processing by anion exchange resins in the presence of an alcoholic solvent.

Effect of chemical composition and sonication procedure on properties of food-grade soy lecithin liposomes with added glycerol

The effect of two-step and five-step acetone washing of soybean lecithin (SL) on compositional properties of partially purified phosphatidylcholines (PW2 and PW5) was studied. Trace amounts of protein were detected in SL, PW2 and PW5, with a predominance of glutamic acid and aspartic acid. Increasing the number of acetone washing steps significantly reduced the total content of γ-, δ- and α-tocopherol. Similar reductions (≈90%) of neutral lipids were found in both PW2 and PW5, but the removal of free fatty acids was higher in PW5 than in PW2 (78% vs. 71%). Linoleic acid was the main constituent in both the neutral lipids and the phospholipid fractions of SL, PW2 and PW5, accounting for around 53–59% of total fatty acids; however, a considerable amount of it was removed by increasing the number of washing steps. All phospholipid classes were mostly concentrated in the first two-step washing of lecithin. Further washing increased the concentration of phosphatidylcholine (PC) in PW5, as compared to PW2. Glycerol-containing liposomes from PW2 and PW5 were produced using two different-intensity sonication procedures (method A: 120W, 5min; method B: 30W, 2min) using a probe-type sonicator (100mL volume suspension). Liposomes of soy lecithin and liposomes of PW5 without glycerol were also obtained by using strong sonication (method A). The liposomal dispersion with the highest purification and the stronger sonication was clearly distinguished from the others, both in particle size and in zeta potential. DSC results showed noticeable interference of glycerol in the membrane structure, but minimal changes in particle size and surface charge.

Waterless purification using oil palm biomass-derived bioadsorbent improved the quality of biodiesel from waste cooking oil

The utilization of adsorbents produced from biomass for tertiary treatment of industrial wastes has gained much interest compared to the conventional methods such as flocculation and coagulation. In the present study, a bioadsorbent produced from pressed-shredded oil palm empty fruit bunch was used to remove impurities from crude biodiesel derived from waste cooking oil. The purification process was performed using 1 to 5 wt% bioadsorbent loadings under continuous stirring at 500 rpm for 1 h. After purification using 5 wt% of bioadsorbent loading, 89.7% of residual methanol, 81.7% of water, 36.7% of free fatty acid and 98.6% of potassium were successfully removed. This met the European Biodiesel Standard (EN14214). In comparison to commercial adsorbents and the water washing method, purification using the oil palm empty fruit bunch derived bioadsorbent resulted in higher removal of free fatty acids, potassium, water impurities and a smaller loss of fatty acid methyl esters. It was found that the use of the bioadsorbent improved the biodiesel quality besides its benefits of ease of operations and avoidance of waste water production.

EFFECT OF BORE FLUID COMPOSITION ON STRUCTURAL AND PERFORMANCE OF POLYPHENYLSULFONE HOLLOW FIBER MEMBRANE CONTACTOR FOR DEACDIFICATION OF CRUDE PALM OIL

The present work is aimed to study the influence of membrane internal structure on the extracting performance of hollow fiber membrane contactor system in removing free fatty acid (FFA) from crude palm oil (CPO). Polyphenylsulfone (PPSU) hollow fiber membrane were prepared via wet spinning method. Different bore fluid composition were employed mainly consisted of distilled water in combination with 0, 20, 30 and 40 wt.% N-methyl-2pyrrolidone (NMP). The resulting membranes structure were characterized for membrane morphology, membrane wettability and membrane pore size. The used of pure distilled water as membrane BF had created a large macrovoid structure with uniform and tiny finger-liked morphology at the outer membrane layer. Meanwhile, the present of NMP in BF composition had obviously changed the internal layer of 14PPSU membrane to more interconnected double-layers of finger-liked morphology. However, there are not much different in membrane wettability and pore size of 14PPSU membrane were recorded. All PPSU hollow fiber membranes were further evaluated for deacidification performance through membrane contactor with sodium hydroxide (NaOH) as liquid extractant. 14PPSU-100:0 membrane contactor that prepared from100% distilled water as BF composition demonstrated the highest FFA removal of 16.54% without soap formation in oil permeate stream.

Adsorption of Free Fatty Acid in Biodiesel from Palm Fatty Acid Distillate using KOH-Activated Starch

The elimination of free fatty acids (FFA) from biodiesel is usually performed in industrial practice using different units for neutralization with caustic, washing and drying of the fuel. However, adjustment of the free fatty acids can be performed in only one operation using bleaching tanks and commercial adsorbents. In this work, purification of crude biodiesel fuel from palm fatty acid distillate (PFAD) has been done by employing dry washing method for the removal of FFA using modified potato and cassava starch and compared with commercial magnesium silicate. The molar ratios of KOH/starch in modified potato and cassava, i.e. 0.10:1, 0.15:1 and 0.25:1 were obtained by varying concentrations of KOH: starch samples. The morphology, crystal structures, surface area and pore size of the adsorbents were characterized by scanning electron microscopy (SEM), X-ray diffraction method (XRD) and Brunauver-Emmett-Teller technique (BET). The adsorption efficiency of the synthesized adsorbents in biodiesel was studied by varying dosage of adsorbents for 50 g of biodiesel at 30 oC for 30 min. The results showed that the modified potato and cassava at 0.25:1 KOH/starch molar ratio at room temperature presented the highest efficiency in adsorption of residual FFA at 69.46 % and the highest adsorption capacity of modified cassava and potato starch was 233 mg and 228 mg of FFA per gram of adsorbent. The comparison of dry washing with commercial magnesium silicate, presented good efficiency in the removal of FFA and depicted similar behaviour independent of the kind of adsorbent employed.

Kinetics of amidation of free fatty acids in jatropha oil as a prerequisite for biodiesel production

Owing to the growing demand for transportation fuel, enormous efforts are being carried on development of alternate fuels mainly biodiesel from various renewable sources. Different pretreatment methods are adopted for the preparation of biodiesel, major one of the them is the removal of free fatty acids (FFA). Literature reveals esterification as an essential unit process for the reduction of FFA by conversion into its respective esters. In this study, FFA present in jatropha oil were reduced by amidation reaction using monoethanolamine for use in biodiesel. The by-product obtained is fatty acid amide. The fatty acid amide obtained was separated from the feedstock by filtration or centrifugation. This pre-treated oil can be directly transesterified for the preparation of biodiesel without undergoing any process step for removal of unreacted amine. Also, the reaction kinetics of jatropha oil with monoethanolamine was studied with batch experiments at 34–64°C and at molar ratios of FFA-monoethanolamine varying from 1:0.5 to 1:2 with different speeds of agitation. Based on the experimental results, 1:1.5 FFA-monoethanolamine molar ratio at 34°C and 550rpm gave maximum reduction in free fatty acids. The effect of reaction conditions such as temperature and molar ratio on the kinetics has been studied. Observed reaction rate data was fitted to the regression technique. Estimated kinetic model reaction rate constants and equilibrium constant were fitted to the Arrhenius and van’t Hoff equations respectively. The deacidified jatropha oil was transesterified by conventional method and was characterized for its physico-chemical properties.

Simultaneous improvement in solvent permeability and deacidification of soybean oil by nanofiltration.

In this paper, soybean oil deacidification and hexane removal using laboratory scale solvent resistance nanofiltration membranes based technique is presented. Composite nanofiltration membranes made of different polymers poly(vinylideneflouride) (PVDF), polydimethylsiloxane (SI), polycarbonate (PC), and glycerol were tested to remove the hexane and free fatty acid (FFA) from soybean oil/hexane miscella (oil feed solution 10, 25, and 35% w/w) at 20bar of transmembrane pressure and 30°C, in a dead-end filtration set up. All membranes tested showed low fouling phenomena and high stability in the presence of hexane throughout the membrane pre-treatment and permeation procedure. The PVDF-10SI-1PC membrane showed the best performance achieving a miscella permeability of Lm=6.8×10-6L(hmbar)-1, oil and FFA sieving efficiency of β(oil)=0.21(80% of oil rejection) and βFFA=2.43 (27% of FFA removal), respectively, at oil feed concentration of 25%. Apart from these specific properties, the PVDF-10SI-1PC membrane presented excellent mechanical and chemical resistances and low reversible fouling. The results demonstrate that membrane technology can attain a high efficiency in the simultaneous solvent recovery and deacidification of oil/hexane miscella commonly processed in the soybean oil industry.

Effect of Selected Polyhydric Alcohols on Refining Oil Loss in the Neutralization Step

AbstractAlkaline neutralization is a classical method for removal of free fatty acids (FFA) in crude oil. It is generally accompanied by neutral oil loss. Thus, reduction of refining losses associated with alkaline neutralization is very desirable. Refined, bleached and deodorized (RBD) palm oils with different FFA contents were used as oil models in this study. FFA in the oil models were neutralized with sodium hydroxide in polyhydric alcohols as neutralization media. Glycerol, propylene glycol and ethylene glycol in water were effective neutralization media. FFA in the oil models were totally removed in one step of neutralization, while percentages of refining losses were different. The losses were increased in the order of water &gt; propylene glycol &gt; ethylene glycol &gt; glycerol used as neutralization media. Also, a higher concentration of polyhydric alcohol in the neutralizing media significantly reduced the percentage of refining loss (p &lt; 0.05). Glycerol (90% in water) was the most effective neutralization media (p &lt; 0.05). When neutralization was carried out on crude palm oil (containing 7.53% FFA), refining loss was reduced from 36.1% (in water) to 20.0% (in 90% glycerol in water).

The removal of free fatty acids from methyl ester

This paper focused on the removal of free fatty acids from the ester phase. Transesterification was stopped by neutralization of the catalyst (KOH) by phosphoric acid addition to the reaction mixture. The advantages of this method are a very fast separation, an ester phase that does not contain potassium ions and free glycerol, and a relatively high purity of the glycerol phase. The disadvantage is the formation of free fatty acids, which were removed by the addition of calcium hydroxide, a reaction that formed solid calcium soaps that were removed by centrifugation. The conditions of removal (independent variables), such as the acid number of the input ester phase, molar ratio of calcium to FFAs and addition of water, were studied. The relations between independent and dependent variables (acid number, amount of calcium ions and water in the ester phase) are described. The model allowed for the calculation of conditions, so that the biodiesel fulfilled EN14214: a molar ratio of calcium to FFAs of 3.33:1, the addition of 1.45 μl water to 1 g of the ester phase and a reaction time of 3 h. This preparation of methyl ester is nearly without waste and does not use water for purification.

Equilibrium, Kinetic, and Thermodynamic Studies for Crude Structured-Lipid Deacidification Using Strong-Base Anion Exchange Resin

This study presents the adsorption behavior of strong-base anion exchange D202 resin for the elimination of free fatty acids (FFAs) from structure-lipid in nonpolar solvent. The kinetics and thermodynamic behaviors that govern FFAs removal by D202 resin were investigated, and appropriate equilibrium isotherm and kinetics models for the removal in batch experiments were identified. Both the Freundlich and Langmuir adsorption isotherm models were fitted to the experimental results with the best fit obtained by the latter. The adsorption capacity of D202 resin was 235.69 mg·g–1, as calculated from the nonlinear model of the Langmuir adsorption. The experimental data from the batch adsorption processes were analyzed in terms of the parameters from three adsorption kinetics models, namely, the liquid-film diffusion, the intraparticle, and the chemical-reaction models, to estimate the fit for the adsorption in these systems. The outcomes indicate that the adsorption kinetics between the free fatty acid ions and...

Intestinal removal of free fatty acids from hosts by Lactobacilli for the treatment of obesity

Recent findings on the association of gut microbiota with various diseases, including obesity, prompted us to investigate the possibility of using a certain type of gut bacteria as a safe therapeutic for obesity. Lactobacillus mutants with enhanced capacity in absorption of free fatty acids (FFAs) were isolated to show reduced absorption of FFAs by the administered host, attributing to inhibition of body weight gain and body fat accumulation as well as amelioration of blood profiles. Consequently, high throughput screening of natural FFAs‐absorbing intestinal microbes led to the isolation of Lactobacillus reuteri JBD30 l. The administration of Lactobacillus JBD30l lowered the concentration of FFAs in the gut fluid content of small intestine, thus reducing intestinal absorption of FFAs whereas promoting fecal excretion of FFAs. Animal data also confirmed that the efficacy of Lactobacillus JBD30l on body weight similar to that of orlistat, an FDA‐approved pharmaceutical for long‐term use to treat obesity. In a subsequent random, double‐blind, placebo‐controlled clinical trial (KCT0000452 at Clinical Research Information Service of Korea), there was a statistically significant difference in the percentage change in body weight between the Lactobacillus JBD301 and the placebo group (P = 0.026) as well as in the BMI (P = 0.036) from the 0‐week assessment to the 12‐week assessment. Our results show that FFA‐absorbing Lactobacillus JBD301 effectively reduces dietary fat absorption, providing an ideal treatment for obesity with inherent safety.

Removal of free fatty acid in Palm Fatty Acid Distillate using sulfonated carbon catalyst derived from biomass wastefor biodiesel production

In this research, the esterification of PFAD using the sulfonatedcoconut shell biochar catalyst was studied. Carbon solid catalysts were prepared by a sulfonation of carbonized coconut shells. The performances of the catalysts were evaluated in terms of the reaction temperatures, the molar ratios of methanol to PFAD, the catalyst loading and the reaction times. The reusability of the solid acid carbon catalysts was also studied in this work. The results indicated that the FFA conversion was significantly increased with increasing catalyst loading and reaction times. It can be concluded that the optimal conditions were an PFAD to methanol molar ratio of 1:12, the amount of catalyst of 10%w, and reaction temperature of 60oC.At this optimum condition, the conversion to biodieselreached 88%.

Equilibrium, Kinetics, and Thermodynamics of Soybean Oil Deacidification Using a Strong Anion Exchange Resin

This study investigated the adsorption kinetics, isotherms, and thermodynamic parameters of the removal of free fatty acids from soybean oil using the strong anion exchange resin Amberlyst A26 OH. The presence and type of organic solvents used in the solution and in the resin, due to its pretreatment, affected the reduction of acidity and the adsorption rate as well as its catalytic activity. Adsorption of free fatty acids was further studied in two systems involving the resin drying step and the adsorbate dissolved in either vegetable oil alone or vegetable oil with hexane. The fitting of pseudo-first-order and pseudo-second-order models showed high coefficients of determination. Langmuir, Freundlich, and Temkin isotherms could describe the equilibrium data. The adsorption in this study is a spontaneous and endothermic process. The reported results highlight that Amberlyst A26 OH has good adsorption capacity for the free fatty acids contained in vegetable oils.

Development of methods for neutralizing the free fatty acids of fatty coriander oil

In the present paper, the information on the process of enzymatic conversion of free fatty acids in fatty coriander oil (FCO) was considered. Enzymatic esterification was performed according to the following algorithm: FCO was treated with enzymes, purified by adsorbents with a variation of the basic process parameters, alcohols of a different nature were added. The quality of the samples of the purified FCO was determined by the basic physicochemical index - acid number. Ethanol (96 %) and glycerin (99.3 %) were used as reagents. Enzyme preparations (manufactured by «Novozymes» Denmark): Novozym 435, Lipozym TL IM were used as catalysts. Using the FCO fining methods, given in the paper, it was managed to reduce the acid number of oil from 17.0 mg KOH/g to 0.3 mg KOH/g. It was proved that using vacuum is an appropriate technological stage of enzymatic esterification of the FCO. Using molecular sieves for the FCO fining to reduce the content of water formed in the esterification and, thus, improve the conditions for the conversion reaction of free fatty acids - reduced acid number to less than 2.1 mg KOH/g was investigated. It was found that when adding molecular sieves in the FCO - reagent - enzyme system, water removal is not observed and their use does not decrease the acid number of oil at all. The fatty acid composition of the sample of the initial FCO was investigated by means of gas-liquid chromatography. It was found that in the initial FCO the percentage of the main fatty acids are the following: palmitic - 2.4 %, petroselinum - 71.3 %, oleic - 7.8 %, linoleic - 15.6 %. The authors have examined the process of adsorption of free fatty acids from the esterified FCO using the anionite EDE - 10P. It was found that the increase in the ratio of FCO to the adsorbent does not result in complete removal of free fatty acids and, accordingly, sufficient decrease in the acid number of the purified oil.

English

Performance of chemical deacidification of crude palm oil (CPO) using aqueous NaOH solution in a polysulfone hollow fiber ultrafiltration membrane was investigated. The effects of operating temperature, NaOH concentration and flow rates on percentage of free fatty acids (FFA) removal, oil loss, soap entrainment and overall mass transfer coefficient were evaluated. Overall mass transfer coefficients, soap content in oil and neutral oil loss all increased when the temperature was increased from 60 to 70°C due to an increase of the FFA distribution value. A minimum 0.25 N of NaOH or a NaOH to FFA molar ratio of about 7.62 was required to facilitate the expected extraction efficiency. The increased oil flowrate slightly enhanced the solute transport kinetics, while the aqueous phase flowrate did not significantly influence deacidification efficiency or mass transfer coefficient. About 97% of FFA removal was achieved within 4 hours. The maximum oil loss observed was 11% and the highest soap content in the oil without separation step was 3150 ppm. The values of the overall mass transfer coefficient varied from 2.97×10 -7 to 7.71×10 -7 m/s. These results show the potential of using the non dispersive membrane contacting process for chemical deacidification of CPO as well as other vegetable oils.

The Sexual Dimorphism of Lipid Kinetics in Humans.

In addition to the obvious differences in body shape, there are substantial differences in lipid metabolism between men and women. These differences include how dietary fatty acids are handled, the secretion and clearance of very low-density lipoprotein-triglycerides, the release rates of free fatty acids (FFA) from adipose tissue relative to energy needs, and the removal of FFA from the circulation, including the storage of FFA into adipose tissue via the direct uptake process. We will review what is known about these processes and how they may contribute to the sexual dimorphism of body fat distribution.

Deacidification of crude palm oil using PVA-crosslinked PVDF membrane

Over recent years, there has been an explosive growth of interest in the development of alternative approaches for crude palm oil (CPO) refining. During a typical refinery process, free fatty acid (FFA) is one of the key objectionable impurities that need to be reduced if not completely removed from CPO in order to minimize their detrimental effects on the oil quality. Polyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF) membrane shows great potential in removing FFA from CPO owing to its hydrophobic properties, high mechanical strength and good thermal stability. However, low concentration of FFA in CPO, which is normally ranging from 3% to 5%, has hindered the capability of the membranes to separate the trace amount of FFA from the bulk. Thus, modification of PVDF membrane is essential to enhance the interaction between the membrane surface and FFA molecules, facilitating efficient FFA removal. In order to achieve this purpose in the present study, the outer surface of PVDF hollow fiber membranes was crosslinked with polyvinyl alcohol (PVA). Glutaraldehyde (GA) was used as a crosslinking agent to avoid the PVA dissolution. Despite the negligible morphological change observed in the resultant membranes upon PVA crosslinking, the contact angle has been significantly reduced in proportional to the concentration of PVA used for the crosslinking, suggesting the decrease in membrane hydrophobicity. Additionally, the average roughness of the crosslinked PVDF membranes increased with the increasing PVA concentration. The results obtained suggested that the PVDF hollow fiber crosslinked with 100ppm PVA exhibited the highest FFA rejection of 5.93% after 3h of operation. In addition, the membrane also showed good result in reducing the content of phosphorus in the permeate and partial reduction of its color intensity. This study served as the first attempt of CPO deacidification through UF membrane system without the addition of any chemical during the filtration process.

Comparative study of soybean oil refining using rice hull silicate and commercial adsorbents

To obtain an edible grade of soybean oil, impurity removal processes are important steps in refining. To remove coloring compounds and free fatty acids, commercial adsorbents (silica gel, activated carbon, aluminum oxide, alumina silicate, acid clay, and zeolite) and rice hull silicate (RHS) were evaluated with respect to their adsorption removal efficiencies for lutein. Various doses of commercial adsorbents and RHS were individually added to degummed soybean oil to remove lutein. The commercial adsorbents and RHS substantially reduced lutein amounts in degummed soybean oil. Silica gel was the most effective adsorbent, followed by acid clay, and RHS. Treatments with adsorbents also reduced the residual free fatty acid (FFA) content. Aluminum oxide was the most effective in removal of FFA (approximately 40% reduction). RHS and rice hull ash (RHA) showed similar deacidification effects. RHS can be used as an alternative bleaching agent as it was effective in reducing the residual FFA content in soybean oil.