Remote Settlements Research Articles

04/00866 Small hybrid solar power system: Kane, M. et al. Energy, 2003, 28, (14), 1427–1443

This paper introduces a novel of mini-hybrid solar power plant integrating a field of solar concentrators, two superposed Organic Rankine Cycles (ORC) and a (bio)Diesel engine. Turbines for the organic Rankine Cycles are hermetic scroll expander-generators. Sun tracking solar collectors are composed of rows of flat mirror bands (CEP) arranged in a plane, which focus the solar energy onto a collector tube similar to those used in SEGS plant in California. The waste heat from both the exhaust gases and block cooling of the thermal engine are also heat sources for the ORCs. Such units are considered to meet electricity, cooling and pumping needs of remote settlements in the sun belt areas or on special sites requiring low temperature heating such as swimming pools or greenhouses. The thermal engine guaranties a minimum level of both power and heat availability at night or during cloudy periods. Laboratory tests, made with the superposed ORCs only, confirmed adequate operational characteristics with good performances over a broad range of conditions. A few preliminary tests on the site of the solar power plant when coupled with the engine confirmed a reasonable behavior and the interest of the concept even at part load or during sharp variations of the thermal supply.

Traditional Owners and 'Community-Country' Anangu: Distinctions and Dilemmas

In some contexts, including those that require concrete and locally specific knowledge, the term 'traditional owner' has come to mean something different from its original statutory definition, in daily discourse, in the routine operations of settlement life and the administration of the Aboriginal Land Rights (Northern Territory) Act 1976 (ALRA). It has also become a common referent for Aborigines resident in remote areas, rather than a specific term for land-holder. I will begin to unpack the nexus between this category and the reality of decision making by persons whom I term 'community-country' Anangu. To this end, this post-settlement sociopolitical category is examined to contrast it from the definition of traditional ownership under the ALRA. This will highlight the tensions between the functional legal operations of the ALRA - its obligation to consult with traditional owners - and the reality of those persons who tend to be consulted about development proposals. The emerging issue of the regionalisation of remote settlements also plays directly into this issue of defining traditional owners.

Health care in remote Australian Indigenous communities

Health care in remote Australian Indigenous communities

Stroke outcomes in Northern Scotland: does rurality really matter?

Stroke is the third leading cause of death in Scotland after coronary heart disease and cancer and is a major cause of long-term disability. There is evidence in other clinical conditions such as asthma, diabetic retinopathy, and cancer that rural residents may have poorer outcomes, due to relative inaccessibility of health-service provision or because the disease is at a more advanced stage at diagnosis. However, the evidence-base for stroke care and outcomes in remote and rural areas is small and the subject matter is under-researched. This study was designed to examine, over a one-year period, the incidence and outcome of stroke occurring in the Highlands and Islands of Scotland, a large geographical area with many rural and remote settlements. The study explored whether stroke care and outcome was affected by remoteness and rurality. The study was a prospective, community-based, observational survey. Patients in Highland and the Islands (Orkney, Shetland and the Western Isles) suffering first-ever stroke during a 12-month period (from 1 May 2001 to 30 April 2002) were included. All practitioners from health and social care sectors, residential homes, voluntary and charitable organisations were encouraged to notify the researchers of any individual they suspected or knew had a first-ever stroke within the designated time period. Data on 'limitation in activities' (formerly 'level of disability') and service provision were collected using questionnaires and proformas at 1, 3 and 6 months post-stroke from several sources. These included individual patients and carers, health and social care professionals, residential homes, voluntary organisations, and charitable organisations. The analysis focused on location at time of follow up, limitation in activities and service provision. Outcomes were compared across different settlement categories. Settlements were classified as urban/accessible, remote rural and very remote, based on the Scottish Household Survey. In all, 303 patients with a suspected first-ever stroke were notified to the study. The resulting crude incidence of reported stroke was 1.1 per 1000. From the notifications, 239 patients were sent a consent form, of whom 118 agreed to participate in the study. The final dataset, after exclusions for incorrect diagnosis, deaths and other reasons, was derived from 85 patients. Among these, patients from remote rural and very remote settlements were over-represented, when compared to all patients notified. The majority of patients returned home from acute hospitals during the study period and the likelihood of returning home was not related to settlement category. However, a greater proportion of patients in remote rural settlements were admitted to community hospitals and remained there at 6 months. Approximately two-thirds had some degree of disability (or limitation in activities) after their stroke. One-third of patients classed themselves as independent across all time points. Overall, the Barthel Index score increased over time (ie, patients experienced a reduction in disability) with the average score at 1 month post-stroke being 82.5 (range 0-100), at 3 months 85 (range 5-100), and at 6 months 90 (range 5-100). Uptake of services was similar across all settlement categories, with low levels of use at 6-months post-stroke. In particular, few patients used social-support and stroke-specific services, for example Chest, Heart and Stroke Scotland, and Stroke Nurse services. The proportion of patients using any service at 1, 3 and 6 months did not differ between settlement categories. Rural patients did not therefore appear disadvantaged in service provision. The low incidence of reported stroke may have been due to a number of reasons including: death prior to notification; diagnostic uncertainty; stroke severity--failure to notify very mild or very severe stroke cases; and inadequate reporting of patients managed at home. The greater proportion of patients in remote rural settlements being admitted to community hospitals and remaining there at 6 months may reflect greater availability of community hospital places in this settlement category, but may also be influenced by stroke severity. The low uptake of rehabilitation and support services generally, combined with the relatively poor functional outcome of our patients, suggests that there may be an unmet need for rehabilitation. However, rural patients did not appear specifically disadvantaged. Our study indicates that patients developing a first-time stroke in remote and rural areas of the Highlands and Islands of Scotland are not disadvantaged compared to those in urban/accessible areas, with respect to outcome or to the utilization of health and social care services. However, functional outcomes could be improved for patients in all settlement categories.

Small hybrid solar power system

This paper introduces a novel concept of mini-hybrid solar power plant integrating a field of solar concentrators, two superposed Organic Rankine Cycles (ORC) and a (bio-)Diesel engine. The Organic Rankine Cycles include hermetic scroll expander-generators 1 1 The word expander is often used to characterize units recovering the expansion energy of a gas, in particular when based on a volumetric machine. The word turbine or expander will be used indifferently in this paper. and the sun tracking solar collectors are composed of rows of flat mirror bands (CEP) arranged in a plane, that focus the solar energy onto a collector tube similar to those used in SEGS plants in California. Waste heat from both the exhaust gases and the block cooling of the thermal engine are also heat sources for the ORCs. Such units meet electricity, cooling and pumping needs of remote settlements. The thermal engine guarantees a minimum level of both power and heat availability at night or during cloudy periods. Laboratory tests, made with the superposed ORCs only, confirmed adequate operational characteristics with good performances over a broad range of conditions. A few preliminary tests on the site of the solar power plant when coupled with the engine confirmed a reasonable behavior and the interest of the concept even at part load or during sharp variations of the thermal supply.

Contrails of Globalization and the View from the Ground: An Essay on Isolation in East-Central Siberia

This paper examines the conditions behind the tragic situation of isolation in remote rural settlements of post-Soviet Siberia. Ethnography, archival research, and a literature review are used to show how the landscape itself poses formidable impediments to bettering the lives of indigenous Evenkis living in one northern district of Krasnoyarsk Kray. Over one or two generations, traditional Evenki systems of mobility were reconfigured according to mechanized vehicles, centralized settlements, and a heavy reliance on non-local goods. The fragility of the Soviet system for operating northern settlements can be taken as a general warning to other sub-Arctic and Arctic communities in the circumpolar North.

ELEVATED BLOOD MERCURY AND NEURO-OTOLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS IN CHILDREN OF THE ECUADORIAN GOLD MINES

The prevalence of mercury (Hg) intoxication was investigated in 114 Andean Saraguro and non-Saraguro (Mestizo) children living in remote gold-mining settlements in Nambija and Portovelo, Ecuador. Venous blood samples showed a mean total blood mercury (BHg) level of 18.2 µg/L (SD 15.5; range 2-89.) for 77 Saraguro and non-Saraguro children in the Nambija settlement, which was significantly higher than that of children in the Portovelo and reference groups. Comparison of groups showed mean B-Hg levels of 26.4 µg/L (range 4-89 µg/L) for 32 indigenous/Saraguro children; 12.3 µg/L (range 2-33 µg/L) for 45 non-Saraguro children; 4.9 µg/L (range 1-10 µg/L) for 37 children in Portovelo; and 2.4 µg/L (range 1-6 µg/L) for a reference group of 15 children. Fisher's post hoc analysis revealed significant differences among groups, except between the Portovelo and the reference groups. Neuro-otological symptoms and abnormalities were observed in Saraguro, non-Saraguro, and Portovelo children. Samples of soil collected at sites near the local school were found to contain Hg levels ranging from 0.1 to 38 ppm, cadmium (Cd) levels from 0.07 to 0.82 ppm and arsenic (As) levels from <1 to 3.9 ppm. In conclusion, the children of Nambija, particularly the Saraguro "Amer-Indians," exhibited elevated B-Hg levels from exposure to Hg used in the gold-mining process, and are at risk for neurological impairment. The children of Portovelo who reported neuro-otological symptoms but had low B-Hg levels (<10 µg/L) may be affected by exposure to sodium cyanide, which is used extensively in the local gold-mining operations.

Labour, leisure and household income in rural settlements: an empirical assessment in the Atlantic Zone of Costa Rica

The relationship between labour use, the availability of leisure time and the generation of income in rural farm households is often depicted as an implicit or explicit trade-off. This article presents a review of current theories regarding the supply, demand and use of labour at farm household level, followed by an empirical assessment of time allocation of labour and the composition of farm household income in a sample of peasant households located in different types of agrarian settlements at the Atlantic Zone of Costa Rica. Structural determinants of labour use and leisure choice, as well as the relationship between household income and the availability of leisure are determined. Major differences in land use and labour allocation between settlements according to the period of colonization (old or recent) and the type of colonization (spontaneous or organized) are outlined. Small farms in organized settlements rely on labour-intensive cropping systems that guarantee higher incomes at the expense of leisure, while farms in spontaneous and more remote settlements still maintain labour-extensive production with reliance on wage labour. Empirical evidence points towards a clear trade-off between leisure-time and marginal income as well as possibilities for substitution of family labour by hired labour to increase leisure. Personal characteristics ( i.e. education, age, work attitudes) and farm characteristics ( i.e. location, farm size, lifetime) are identified as relevant factors to explain leisure choice.

Effect of iodized oil supplementation on thyroid hormone levels and mental performance among Orang Asli schoolchildren and pregnant mothers in an endemic goitre area in Peninsular Malaysia

Although endemic goitre is no longer a major public health problem in Malaysia, iodine deficiency still remains a significant problem in a few remote settlements. The aim of this study was to determine the effectiveness of iodized oil intervention in the prevention of endemic goitre among the indigenous people in Malaysia. A pretest and post-test controlled trial was conducted among primary schoolchildren and pregnant mothers in Lasah, Sungai Siput and Perak. Legap Post and Yum Post were selected as the intervention areas, while Perwor Post and Poi Post were taken as controls. The variables studied included thyroid hormone concentrations, thyroid volume, urinary iodine excretions and mental performance. A baseline and two follow-up visits were conducted in both intervention and control areas. Intervention subjects were given iodized oil in the form of capsules which were taken orally (Laboratoire Guerbet, Paris, France). There was a significant increase in serum thyroxine hormone (T4) concentrations (p<0.0001) and a significant decrease in thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH) concentrations (p<0.05) in the schoolchildren following the intervention, however, pregnant mothers did not show any significant changes in T4 and TSH concentrations. Thyroid size was significantly reduced in both groups (p<0.05). Urinary iodine excretions showed a significant increase in both groups following the intervention (p<0.01). However, mental performance in schoolchildren was not affected. In conclusion, iodized oil (oral) is effective in reducing thyroid size, as well as improving the supply of iodine among schoolchildren and pregnant mothers in endemic goitre areas; however, its long-term effects need to be monitored closely. This method can be considered as an alternative while awaiting national coverage for the salt iodization program.

Livelihood Opportunity and Diversity in Kalahari Wildlife Management Areas, Botswana: Rethinking Community Resource Management

The livelihood opportunities open to people, and the diverse portfolios of activities that make up a living, are now key areas of conceptual and empirical research. Similarly, community-based natural resource management initiatives are currently receiving widespread attention in both policy and academic circles. This paper draws on research conducted in western Botswana, which examined community development and wildlife management in a Kalahari Wildlife Management Area. It focuses on the livelihood dynamics of residents living in two remote settlements in the Wildlife Management Area. These livelihood dynamics are closely linked with the complex history of resource use and conflict in the area. Hunting and gathering, two key livelihood activities, are examined in detail. The paper argues that, although the natural resource base has changed, and use of natural resources has in many cases dwindled, livelihoods based on these resources remain important in terms of cultural identity, symbolic significance and as a real and perceived safety net in times of stress. These findings have both positive and negative consequences for the proposed community-based natural resource management initiatives in the area. The dynamics of people's livelihoods are not always recognised by those implementing the changes. Community-based natural resource management projects have the potential to embrace social justice and ecological sustainability. However they also have the potential to undermine rural populations' individual and collective actions to manage their resources base and maintain viable livelihood strategies at a range of levels.

Hydrogeologic framework and borehole yields in Ghana

In Ghana, 68% of the population live in rural communities, which are scattered and remote. Groundwater is the most feasible source of potable water supply for most of these dispersed and remote settlements. To meet the present and future challenges of population expansion vis-a-vis the observed declining rainfall in most parts of Africa including Ghana, it is necessary to assess, efficiently manage, and utilize the groundwater resources. The objective of this paper is therefore to describe the hydrogeologic framework and analyze borehole yields as part of the groundwater-resources assessment of Ghana. The hydrogeologic units are broadly categorized as: (1) the Basement Complex (crystalline rocks), which underlies about 54% of the country; (2) the Voltaian System, which underlies about 45%; and (3) the Cenozoic, Mesozoic, and Paleozoic sedimentary strata (Coastal Provinces), which underlie the remaining 1% of the country. The Basement Complex and the Coastal Provinces have higher groundwater potential than the Voltaian System. This is particularly significant, because the Basement Complex and the Coastal Provinces underlie the most densely populated areas of the country and can hence be tapped for human use. The average borehole yields of the Basement Complex, the Coastal Provinces and the Voltaian System range from 2.7–12.7, 3.9–15.6, and 6.2–8.5 m3/h, respectively.

Health minister will improve Aboriginal health care

Australia's poor record on Aborginal Health issues (8 January, pp 77) is about to be tackled head on by the federal minister for health, Senator Graham Richardson. While touring remote Aborginal settlements in the Northern Territory Senator Richardson promised to make health care the key components of a new social justice package being negotiated with Aborginies. The minister said that he had encountered living …

The medicinal plants of Gunung Leuser National Park, Indonesia

This paper describes an ethnopharmacological study of two remote settlements in Indonesia. Interviews with practitioners of traditional medicine (dukuns) were carried out to determine the vernacular names of plants used for medicinal purposes. Parts used, methods of preparation and the medicinal uses of 158 species are presented in an inventory. Samples from several species are currently undergoing chemical analysis.

The crocodile project in Papua New Guinea

Abstract Crocodilians throughout the world are under very heavy pressure from habitat destruction, human displacement and deliberate hunting for skins. In Papua New Guinea crocodiles of two species are still relatively plentiful and play an important part in the economy of many remote settlements. An attempt is being made by the national government to implement a policy intended to bring about the harvesting of wild crocodiles on a sustained yield basis and provide an economic incentive for conserving wild stocks in their natural habitat. Low human population density and the existence of vast swamplands make this a possibility. In recognition of the policy and the exceptional circumstances, Papua New Guinea has been exempted from trade restrictions imposed by a number of countries under the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES).

Local perceptions of onchocerciasis in the Hawal Valley, Nigeria

Onchocerciasis is a disease which produces skin changes and can lead to blindness. It is limited in area by its blood-sucking vector. The middle Hawal valley represents a discrete focus of the disease in north-eastern Nigeria. Data on perception were obtained from informal discussion with respondents from hyperendemic, mesoendemic and hypoendemic villages. Their understanding of what constituted onchocerciasis was amazingly accurate and complete, particularly so with informants from the hyperendemic villages. A spiritual interpretation for separate symptoms of the disease was used toexplain causation; Western information on transmission was not known. The vector of onchocerciasis,Simulium damnosum was recognised in riverain areas where it exists but not in areas away from the river. Because of onchocerciasis morbidity people outside the riverain zone avoided it for settlement and temporary farms, and women shunned marriage with men from the area. Similar feelings about morbidity were voiced by people living in the riverain zone some of whom wished to move out. The problems caused by onchocerciasis are potentiated by remoteness for which the disease itself is largely responsible. During the 1970s the more remote settlements have become slightly smaller. Attitudes of people in the middle Hawal valley shape the future for the riverain zone where onchocerciasis is hyperendemic. Prospects would not seem to be rosy for remoter areas where the disease and its consequences are seen to be serious.

Eskimo: a language with a future?

Native languages in northern Canada are under great pressure. Even in the remote settlements of the central and eastern Arctic schooling is primarily in English; Eskimo or Indian languages tend to be regarded as special items of culture that warrant a half-day per week in a ‘cultural inclusion’ programme, along with story-telling and traditional crafts. Even this ‘inclusion’ is a result of recent reforms in curriculum development: in the 1950's and '60's there were schools where the use of native language was simply forbidden. This pressure from within the educational system is compounded by demands from employers in the industrial sector: functional English has sometimes been a condition of being hired, and native languages are generally given minimum usefulness or status at the work-place.

RELOCATION OF SETTLEMENTS IN THE SHIKOKU MOUNTAINS

In Japan the emigration from villages to cities has been very marked through the period of the rapid economic development since 1955 to 1973. During this period many villages experienced a very marked depopulation problem. In the depopulated areas relocation of settlements (shuraku) has been put into operation as a project of the countermeasures to remove people of the depopulated and remote settlements into the areas with better public facilities. Many of this project have been put into operation as a matter of policy by the Economic Planning Agency, the Ministry of Home Affairs, etc., and also by the village (mura) authorities. In this study I intend to explain the facts and the problems of relocation of settlements by taking two villages, different in characters, as examples from the Shikoku mountains Kito-mura in Tokushima Prefecture and Hiyoshi-mura in Ehime Prefecture. The reloca-tion of settlements in Kito-mura was put into operation as a model case of reorganization of villages by the Economic Planning Agency in 1971 and 1972, while in Hiyoshi-mura, the village did it by itself in 1973 by the flotation of loan. Kito-mura is located in the eastern part of the Shikoku mountains and one of the greatest forestry regions in western Japan. The forest there are possessed by the large landowners in and around the village, and most villagers have made their living by working in the forests of the landowners, for the villagers lost their common forests during the Meiji era. Five settlements, Nakauchi, Uinouchi, Gonda, Hiso, and Azegano, all small settlements in the mountains which have been deserted by moving out of many families, were asked to evacuate their settlements and move to a newly built settlement called, Asahi-danchi near the village office. The inhabitants who scarcely possessed their land willingly agreed with the relocation of settlements, but some of them dropped off from the project of relocation beccause of the lack of helping-each-other mind or uniting mind. The jobs of the mi-grants are the same as before, and many of them are engaged in forestry works in the remote mountains and living in workmen's temporary huts. Hiyoshi-mura is located in the western part of Shikoku mountains and made a slow pro-gress in forestry works. The inhabitants have long helped each other through the medium of their large common forests. Setsuyasu-buraku was made an object of settlement reloca-tion. This settlement at the remote corner of the village had twenty-five houses in 1960 but only seven in 1973. Finally Setsuyasu-buraku ceased to exist by mass migration to danchi, a housing development, built near the village office. The inhabitants of Setsuyasu-buraku with the strong power of cooperation accepted the relocation of their settlement, but these new comers could not establish good relation with the old people and have not yet joined the existing social system there. The jobs of the migrants are the same as before, and many of them have been work in the forest near the deserted old settlement they used to live. The following are the gains and losses by the relocation of the settlements in these two villages. The relocation has given the migrants some conveniences for social life and has lessened the burden of social services to the inhabitants for village authority. On the cont-rary, the relocation has brought a negative impact on their economic activities if there is no countermove for employment, and have deserted the land use of the former settlments because of the evacuation of inhabitants even if there is some countermove for employment. I think that the existence of some remote settlements is indispensable from the viewpoint of conservation and development of the resources in the remote mountains. Isn't it necessary to reconsider the relocation of such settlements from the national point of view ?

Petroleum Product Distribution and the Evolution of Economic Regions in Iran

ETROLEUM products are the most widely marketed commercial goods in developing countries, not only because they are consumed in transportation but also because they are used in illumination and later in cooking and heating. Even in the poorest countries petroleum products tend to reach the most remote settlements. In view of the wide dispersal of petroleum products, of their bulky nature and the need for suitable containers and handling installations throughout their distribution area, of their importance to large numbers of people, and of the resulting volume of trade, a geographical study of the evolution of the distribution systems for petroleum products offers significant clues for the identification of economic regions and of the transportation networks and hierarchical structures that emerge in these regions in the process of development. In analyzing this evolution the impact of political and other factors must be assessed in order to establish the economic character of the regions. To determine the significance of the observed regional patterns and structures, comparisons must be made with other definitions of regions (physical, urban, and so forth), as well as with models of regions and their properties (networks, hierarchies of nodes, boundaries, and the like) in various stages of development. Such comparisons will permit evaluation of the advantages and shortcomings of my approach to regional definition and thus will indicate whether the methods can be applied elsewhere in geographical analysis. Iran was selected as a case study for this inquiry. Petroleum products have been marketed there for more than a century, longer than in most developing countries. Moreover, the varied nature of Iran's physical and social geography enables us to distinguish regional patterns associated both with imports and with locally manufactured products.

HISPANO GRISTMILLS IN NEW MEXICO∗

Mid-eighteenth century Hispano settlers of New Mexico constructed small water-driven gristmills which were unique in the American West because of their horizontal waterwheels and the absence of any gear mechanism. Counterclockwise rotation, which is associated with the Iberian and Latin American tradition, supports the thesis that the mill type was introduced into the region from Mexico. The folk mills continued to perform an important economic function in many of the more remote settlements until the 1930s. In 1973 only one mill remained fully operative at its original site.

"WITH GREAT PRICE"

"WITH GREAT PRICE"1 BY JOHN M. GAUS Professor Bjork's history of the Norwegian and Norwegian -American migration to and settlement of the region from the Upper Mississippi Valley to the Pacific coast is marked by a scholarship that is humane and imaginative. His creation from newspapers, letters, interviews, and institutional documents of one of the great stories of American settlement has clearly been guided by an affection and insight free from sentimentality. This we would expect from his earlier Saga in Steel and Concrete. And the reader may learn more not only of the migration of a particular people, of the settlement and growth in complexity of vast regions, of particular romantic, tragic, or inspiring episodes, but also of personally observed routes, rivers, passes, ports, and cities, and remote settlements. He will also, at the end, have light thrown upon the process of "development" in this country, and perhaps therefore have more mature questions to ask himself as to the contemporary and evolving development taking place throughout the world today. The scope and content of Dr. Bjork's study is integrated with earlier studies published by the Association, such as those by Qualey and Biegen and of younger scholars such as William Mulder. He is less concerned with the analysis of the conditions in the old country, and hardly at all with the movements to the eastern and Middle Western United States, except in the general interpretation of their significance as "interplay of European heritage and American environment" resulting in "a synthesis that underlies much of American history." He picks up his story with "one tiny phase," as he 1 Kenneth O. Bjork, West of the Great Divide: Norwegian Migration to the Pacific Coast , 18Ķ7-1893 (Northfield, Minnesota, Norwegian-American Historical Association, 1958. xvi, 671 p. Illustrations and maps. $7.50). This review by Professor Gaus appears in Journal of Economic History , vol. 29, no. 2 (June, 1959) , and is here reprinted with permission of the author and the editors. Ed. 210 "with great price" 211 modestly terms it, "of the latter-day Völkerwanderung . . . to that part of the North American continent that lies west of the Great Divide," from California to Alaska, including the Rocky Mountain area, the Great Basin, and the Inland Empire. He begins with gold-rush days in California and the Mormon settlement of Utah ("From Babylon to Zion") . He notes the migration from older Norwegian settlements in the Middle West of those who found frustrations there comparable , in part, to those which had started them or their parents from Norway. He notes the tendency of the Norwegians settling in California and Utah to disperse to found new communities , some mining, but chiefly agricultural, and later in the forests of the Pacific Northwest. By the decade 18901900 , the coming of the railroads had changed the conditions of settlement and the economy of the Pacific Northwest, and legislation relating to land and other natural resources as well as business opportunities alike created conditions more favorable to those coming from the older-settled Norwegian- American families of the Middle West than their countrymen in Norway. Dr. Bjork keeps in mind the economic conditions in the East as well as those in the Far West and the interrelations of technology, agriculture, and industry throughout, in his interpretation of the successive movements into Oregon, Washington, British Columbia, and Alaska. (His maps locate Norwegian settlement here, as well as in California and Utah earlier.) Throughout this account there are descriptions of individuals and groups, of particular episodes, and of the founding of institutions. But so important are the ideas and institutions of both a transplanted and an evolving culture, notably the churches, the press, and educational and related associations , that he devotes his final chapters to them - "Planting a New Church," "Life in the Pacific Northwest," and "Pattern of Settlement." Here the interrelations with other Scandinavian people mark a special factor in the story of immigrant life; while the characteristic tensions within the 212 JOHN M. GAUS older churches and rise of new doctrines and leaders and the resentment of the churches of the old country at these tendencies parallel the religious life on the frontier throughout...