Reminder Task Research Articles

Resilience predicts posttraumatic cognitions after a trauma reminder task and subsequent positive emotion induction among veterans with PTSD. Correction to Szabo et al. (2022).

Using a quasi-experimental design, we examined the association between trait resilience and state PTCs in veterans with PTSD (n = 47, Mage = 48.60, 91.8% male) at two points: following a written trauma narrative exposure (Time 1 [T1]), and following a subsequent positive distraction task (i.e., brief, positive video; Time 2 [T2]). After controlling for PTSD symptom severity and combat exposure, resilience was negatively associated with PTCs at T1 (ΔR2 = .19) and T2 (ΔR2 = .13). However, resilience was a poor predictor of change in PTCs from T1 to T2. We also examined the relationship between resilience and subtypes of PTCs: resilience was associated with negative views of the self (T1, ΔR2 = .24) but not negative views of the world or self-blame (T1, ΔR2s ≤ .07); these results were consistent at T2. Thus, resilience may attenuate negative trauma-related cognitions after trauma recall; however, this study was not designed to test causal pathways. Future research could examine whether resilience-building exercises reduce negative PTCs after trauma reminders among veterans. Additional research is needed to generalize to other trauma-exposed populations. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2022 APA, all rights reserved).

Perception and timing of acoustic distance

The notion of acoustic distance figures into many aspects of phonetics, including phonological neighborhoods. A measurement of word-level acoustic distance useful for cognitive modeling must account for two listener characteristics: sensitivity to acoustic differences and sensitivity to duration discrepancies between words. The present work used dynamic time warping to measure how acoustic distance accumulates between words over time. The results of a distance rating task with synthesized vowels were used as a basis for selecting a mathematical function that best matched listener sensitivities. Additionally, the results of a reminder task with synthesized vowels were used to determine a just noticeable difference threshold for vowel duration. The results suggested that a distance function based on the 4.5-norm using a 30 ms radius for dynamic time warping best matched human behavior. A third analysis used these dynamic time warping configurations to model reaction times in an auditory lexical decision task and found that Euclidean distance and no temporal constraints on dynamic time warping best matched human behavior. These results are discussed in relation to spoken word recognition models, including how to assess the acoustic match between the speech signal and a word in the lexicon.

Resilience predicts posttraumatic cognitions after a trauma reminder task and subsequent positive emotion induction among veterans with PTSD.

Using a quasi-experimental design, we examined the association between trait resilience and state PTCs in veterans with PTSD (n = 47, Mage = 48.60, 91.8% male) at two points: following a written trauma narrative exposure (Time 1 [T1]), and following a subsequent positive distraction task (i.e., brief, positive video; Time 2 [T2]). After controlling for PTSD symptom severity and combat exposure, resilience was negatively associated with PTCs at T1 (ΔR2 = .19) and T2 (ΔR2 = .13). However, resilience was a poor predictor of change in PTCs from T1 to T2. We also examined the relationship between resilience and subtypes of PTCs: resilience was associated with negative views of the self (T1, ΔR2 = .24) but not negative views of the world or self-blame (T1, ΔR2s ≤ .07); these results were consistent at T2. Thus, resilience may attenuate negative trauma-related cognitions after trauma recall; however, this study was not designed to test causal pathways. Future research could examine whether resilience-building exercises reduce negative PTCs after trauma reminders among veterans. Additional research is needed to generalize to other trauma-exposed populations. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2022 APA, all rights reserved).

Changes in Trauma-Related Cognitions and Emotions After Eliciting Moral Elevation: Examining the Effects of Viewing Others' Virtuous Behavior on Veterans with PTSD.

Moral elevation is described as feeling inspired after witnessing someone perform a virtuous act. Past work suggests the features of moral elevation may be contrary to PTSD, yet few studies have directly tested its impact on relevant symptoms. This experimental study assessed changes in trauma-related cognitions and emotions from after a trauma reminder task to after an elevation induction exercise. We hypothesized that higher elevation after the induction exercise would be associated with greater reductions in cognitions and emotions. Veterans with probable PTSD (N = 38) completed measures of trauma-related cognitions and emotions, once after a written trauma narrative exercise (T1) and again after watching two videos designed to elicit elevation (T2). Veterans also completed measures of state elevation after each video. Results suggest veterans experienced small, significant decreases in self-blame (d = 0.36) and negative beliefs about others (d = 0.46), and medium, significant decreases in guilt (d = 0.68), shame (d = 0.60), and negative beliefs about self (d = 0.69) between T1 and T2. As hypothesized, higher elevation was associated with significantly greater reductions in multiple outcomes above and beyond the effects of general positive affect. Specifically, there were medium effects for changes in shame (β = -0.42, SE = 0.17, p = .019, Δf 2 = 0.25), negative view of others (β = -0.34, SE = 0.16, p = .044, Δf 2 = 0.20), and a large effect for changes in negative view of self (β = -0.31, SE = 0.13, p = .019, Δf 2 = 0.54). These findings suggest elevation may be well-suited to target trauma-related symptoms and future research should further examine its clinical utility.

Supplemental Material for Resilience Predicts Posttraumatic Cognitions After a Trauma Reminder Task and Subsequent Positive Emotion Induction Among Veterans With PTSD

Supplemental Material for Resilience Predicts Posttraumatic Cognitions After a Trauma Reminder Task and Subsequent Positive Emotion Induction Among Veterans With PTSD

Visuospatial computer game play after memory reminder delivered three days after a traumatic film reduces the number of intrusive memories of the experimental trauma

ObjectiveThe experience of intrusive memories is a core clinical symptom of posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD), and can be distressing in its own right. Notions of dual task interference and reconsolidation-update mechanisms suggest novel approaches to target intrusive memories. This study tested the hypothesis that a single-session cognitive intervention (memory reminder task plus Tetris gameplay) would reduce the occurrence of experimental trauma memories even when delivered 3 days post-trauma. Critically, this study tested effects against two control groups: Reminder-only, and reminder plus another computer game (a form of Quiz). Methods86 healthy volunteers (59% female, age M = 24.35, SD = 4.59 years) watched a trauma film and then recorded their intrusive memories in a diary for 3 days (pre-intervention). They then returned to the lab. After presentation of visual reminder cues for the film plus a 10 min wait period (memory reminder task), participants were randomized into one of three task conditions (Tetris game play, Quiz game play, vs. reminder-only). They then kept the diary for a further 3 days (post-intervention). ResultsAs predicted, after the experimental manipulation, the reminder + Tetris group experienced significantly fewer intrusions than the reminder-only group (d = 1.37). Further, the reminder + Tetris group also experienced significantly fewer intrusions than the reminder + Quiz (d = 0.65) group. Contrary to predictions, the reminder + Quiz group experienced significantly fewer intrusions than the reminder-only group (d = 0.69). Prior to the experimental manipulation, there was no significant difference between groups in number of intrusions. Recognition memory test scores for facts of the trauma film after 6 days were comparable between groups. ConclusionsWe demonstrated that 3 days after experimental trauma (i.e. after memory consolidation) an intervention comprising a reminder task prior to a 15 min cognitive interference task (one of two computer games) led to a reduction in intrusion occurrence compared to reminder only. We interpret and discuss our findings within the framework of supposed reconsolidation-update mechanisms and competition for limited (visuospatial) working memory resources. Should these effects hold true in clinical populations, this type of simple intervention approach could help contribute to reducing intrusive memories of trauma.

The influence of stimulus repetition on duration judgments with simple stimuli.

Two experiments investigated the effects of stimulus repetition vs. stimulus novelty on perceived duration. In a reminder task, a standard and a comparison stimulus were presented consecutively in each trial, and the comparison was either a repetition of the standard or a different stimulus. Pseudowords (Experiment 1) or strings of consonants (Experiment 2) were used as stimuli and the inter-stimulus interval (ISI) between the standard and the comparison was either constant or variable. Participants were asked to judge whether the comparison was shorter or longer than the standard. In both experiments, we observed shorter judged durations for repeated than for novel comparisons whereas the manipulation of the ISI had no pronounced effects on duration judgments. The finding of shorter duration judgments for repeated as compared to novel nonwords replicates the results of a previous study (Matthews, 2011) which employed highly complex stimulus material. The present study shows that changes of simple, semantically meaningless stimuli are sufficient to result in a shorter perceived duration of repeated as compared to novel stimuli.

Cognitive Decision Strategies Adopted in Reminder Tasks by Trained Judges When Discriminating Aqueous Solutions Differing in the Concentration of Citric Acid

AbstractFour sensory difference tests – A‐Not A, two‐alternative forced choice (2‐AFC) and their reminder counterparts, A‐Not A with reminder task (A‐Not AR) and 2‐AFC with reminder task (2‐AFCR) – were applied to pairs of aqueous solutions containing different concentrations of citric acid to determine the decision strategy adopted by judges in the reminder tasks, and which of the four tasks has the greatest test sensitivity. Three solution types, each containing a different number of compounds, were employed to determine if the strategy adopted or test sensitivity is contingent upon the number of compounds in solution. Auditory and visual research suggests that observers adopt a tau (τ) strategy for simple stimuli (which could be likened to a solution containing a few compounds) and a beta (β) strategy for complex stimuli (which could be likened to a solution containing several compounds). Results suggest that the strategy adopted for the 2‐AFCR task is fairly consistent across judges and solution types, whereas that for A‐Not AR is fairly consistent across judges but depends on solution type. All four tasks were found to have similar test sensitivity. The results highlight the need for caution when using difference tests when the decision strategy being used by judges is not known. Relatively large errors in estimates of performance can result from an incorrect assumption.Practical ApplicationsChanges to ingredients, processing and storage methods frequently challenge manufacturers who strive to maintain products that will appeal to consumers. Difference tests can assist the manufacturer in determining the effect of such changes on perception. Difference tests need to be effective in use and must produce valid and reliable results. A‐Not A and 2‐AFC tasks are sensitive to sensory differences, and are frequently used, but require a time‐consuming familiarization procedure. A‐Not AR and 2‐AFCR do not require this, as they provide a comparative reminder stimulus on each trial. Comparisons of these four tasks showed all to be equal in test sensitivity, a component of validity, however, not equal in reliability. Of the reminder tasks, A‐Not AR was less reliable, as decision strategy depended on stimulus type, whereas in 2‐AFCR, decision strategy was more consistent, particularly for stimuli containing more components.

The greater temporal acuity in the reminder task than in the 2AFC task is independent of standard duration and sensory modality.

The present study compared estimates of the difference limen (DL) from the reminder and the two-alternative forced-choice task (2AFC) task. Both tasks used exactly the same set of stimulus values and also the same adaptive method for estimating DL. The magnitude of the standard stimulus was varied over a large range. In two experiments, participants discriminated the duration of two successively presented auditory and visual stimuli, respectively. The results are unambiguous. DL estimates from the 2AFC task were considerably larger than the ones from the reminder task. This difference between the two performance estimates was rather stable across the range of standards used and across both sensory modalities. These results reinforce the conclusion by Lapid, Ulrich, and Rammsayer (2008) that the 2AFC task produces consistently higher values of DL than the reminder task. Furthermore and most important, the present data indicate that the observed shape of the Weber function is not influenced by the psychophysical method applied.

Decision strategies for the A Not-A, 2AFC and 2AFC-reminder tasks: Empirical tests

Signal detection theory provides an approach to modelling sensory difference tests that separates estimates of discriminability from the effect of response bias. However, assuming an incorrect decision strategy can also lead to inaccurate estimates of sensitivity, the most common index of which is d′. Using signal detection theory, Hautus, van Hout, and Lee (2009) describe and develop a number of models for the two-alternative forced choice with reminder (2AFCR) task; a task whose trial structure is identical to that of the constant-reference duo–trio task. There are alternative decision strategies (e.g., β or τ), when judging stimuli presented in the 2AFCR, to the “comparison of distances” strategy assumed to be used in the duo–trio task in food science. We investigated the decision strategies adopted by judges in the 2AFCR task using recently developed detection-theoretic models tested on purposefully collected discrimination data. The results indicate that, in the experimental context employed, the optimal β and τ strategies are more likely to be adopted by judges in the 2AFCR task than the “comparison of distances” strategy. Findings have implications for sensory difference testing and the validity of the sensitivity indices they provide.

Reminder and 2AFC tasks provide similar estimates of the difference limen: A reanalysis of data from Lapid, Ulrich, and Rammsayer (2008) and a discussion of Ulrich and Vorberg (2009)

Lapid, Ulrich, and Rammsayer (2008) reported that estimates of the difference limen (DL) from a two-alternative forced choice (2AFC) task are higher than those obtained from a reminder task. This article reanalyzes their data in order to correct an error in their estimates of the DL from 2AFC data. We also extend the psychometric functions fitted to data from both tasks to incorporate an extra parameter that has been shown to allow obtaining accurate estimates of the DL that are unaffected by lapses. Contrary to Lapid et al.'s conclusion, our reanalysis shows that DLs estimated with the 2AFC task are only minimally (and not always significantly) larger than those estimated with the reminder task. We also show that their data are contaminated by response bias, and that the small remaining difference between DLs estimated with 2AFC and reminder tasks can be reasonably attributed to the differential effects that response bias has in either task as they were defined in Lapid et al.'s experiments. Finally, we discuss a novel approach presented by Ulrich and Vorberg (2009) for fitting psychometric functions to 2AFC discrimination data.

DLs in reminder and 2AFC tasks: Data and models

García-Pérez and Alcalá-Quintana (2010) dispute the conclusion of Lapid, Ulrich, and Rammsayer (2008) that the two-alternative forced choice (2AFC) task yields meaningfully larger estimates of the difference limen (DL) than does the reminder task. García-Pérez and Alcalá-Quintana overlook, however, fundamental properties of 2AFC psychometric functions and Type B order errors in their reanalysis. In addition, their favored theory (i.e., the difference model with guessing) does not provide a plausible account for why the 2AFC task tends to yield larger DLs (by about 50%) than does the reminder task. In trying to clarify these issues, I hope to advance the proper assessment of discrimination performance in 2AFC tasks.

Comparisons of Two Variants of the Method of Constant Stimuli for Estimating Difference Thresholds

The two-alternative forced-choice (2AFC) and the reminder tasks are variants of the method of constant stimuli. One or the other task is usually employed for estimating the difference limen (DL) in psychophysical research. Lapid, Ulrich, and Rammsayer (2008) found that the 2AFC task yields larger DLs than the reminder task for duration discrimination judgments. The results of the present paper confirm that this discrepancy also generalizes to discrimination judgments about nontemporal, visual information (Experiment 1: Random dot pattern discrimination; Experiment 2: Line-length discrimination). It is argued that this discrepancy is related to the presentation order of the standard and the comparison stimulus.

On estimating the difference limen in duration discrimination tasks: A comparison of the 2AFC and the reminder task

This article assesses whether the two-alternative forced-choice (2AFC) and the reminder tasks (i.e., method of constant stimuli) yield identical estimates of the difference limen (DL). In a series of six experiments, participants discriminated between two duration stimuli. Experiments 1-5 employed auditory stimuli, and Experiment 6 employed visual stimuli. Experiments 1 and 2 combined each of the two tasks with an adaptive and a nonadaptive procedure for threshold estimation. Experiment 3 varied the distribution of the comparison levels, whereas Experiment 4 employed random interstimulus intervals. Experiments 5 and 6 examined the influence of the presentation order of the standard and comparison stimuli. Results indicate that both the adaptive and the nonadaptive procedures yield virtually identical DL estimates; yet, the 2AFC task produces consistently larger DLs than does the reminder task. In addition, DL increases when the standard occurs in the second rather than in the first stimulus position. In order to account for these results, we assume that participants use an internal standard instead of the actually presented standard as a reference for their judgment.

Hippocampal atrophy in the healthy is initially linear and independent of age

Patients with minimal cognitive impairment (MCI) or Alzheimer's disease (AD) have smaller hippocampal volumes (HV) and increased rates of HV loss (rHVL). A 6-year study was conducted to assess rHVL in healthy aging subjects (HC) in which four MRI scans, each 2 years apart, were obtained on 26 HC with a mean age of 58.8 years when entering the study. rHVLs were linear and significantly differed among subjects, even those sharing an identical apoliporotein E genotype, ranging from .027 to .191 cc/year (S.D. = .022 cc/year), and were not affected by age or sex. rHVL, but not HV, at time of subject entry, was found to predict performance on the delayed recall measure of the Selective Reminder Task obtained 6 years after subject entry into study. Although the molecular events underlying rHVL are unclear, the significance of rHVL in subjects in their sixth and seventh decades of life for predicting age-related cognitive trajectories and whether changes in rHVLs foreshadow the development of MCI are the subject of ongoing study.

The influence of reminder trials on contextual interference effects.

Two experiments investigated the proposition of the elaboration explanation for contextual interference that more than one task is present in working memory when multiple tasks are practiced in a random schedule but that only one task is present in working memory when multiple tasks are practiced in a blocked schedule. Three motor tasks were performed as fast as possible in either a random or blocked practice schedule. At the end of practice, a reminder trial for each task was either given or not given. Acquisition performance was slower for the random practice conditions than for the blocked practice conditions. Retention performance was faster for the random practice conditions than for the blocked practice condition that did not receive a reminder trial for each task. Importantly, performance differences were not found between the random practice conditions and the blocked practice condition that did receive a reminder trial for each task. A blocked practice condition with a beneficial acquisition and reminder task order pairing performed faster during both acquisition and retention than a comparable random practice condition. Reminder trials can facilitate detailing of task characteristics, and their effectiveness is determined by the elapsed time and number of intervening tasks during acquisition and retention.