Religious Forces Research Articles

Conservative turn and political identity: challenges to democracy in Indonesia after presidential election 2019

ABSTRACT The purpose of this research is to examine the conservative shift and identity politics: challenges to democracy in Indonesia after the 2019 presidential election. In this research, the author uses a political sociology approach as a perspective in conducting the analysis. The research method in this study uses a qualitative approach by emphasizing literature review data or literature studies related to the theme in the article. The available data is used as the basis for exploration by using sentences that are connected to form phrases and qualitative analysis. It is known that in political life, ethnic identity is used as a vote banker. Meanwhile, Islamic conservatism and populism are religious forces that disrupt electoral democracy. Issues of identity politics, conservatism, and Islamic populism will continue to grow if moderate Islamic forces such as Muhammadiyah and NU do not emerge in political and religious life.

Āl-e Ahmad's Faustian Bargain? Antonio Gramsci, the “Progressive Clergy,” and the Search for Hegemony in Late-Pahlavi Iran

This article explores the first translations of the Italian Marxist Antonio Gramsci into Persian and a more speculative reconstruction of Gramsci's reception during the second half of the 1960s by two prominent Iranian intellectuals and dissidents close to the League of Iranian Socialists. After examining the initial translations by the influential translator and political activist, Manūchehr Hezārkhānī (d. 2022), the author moves to unpack, Jalāl Āl-e Ahmad's (d. 1969) interpretations, reconstruction, and deployment of these fragmentary translations from an already disjointed and curated edition of the Prison Notebooks. Gramsci's analyses of culture, religion and religious institutions, intellectual production, and political mobilization were drawn upon for a variety of purposes. Thus, while some intellectuals, most famously Āl-e Ahmad, hypothesized that the politically engaged clergy's moral and political leadership was essential to the successful mobilization of the masses against imperialism and the overthrow of the US-backed Pahlavi dictatorship, others, including Hezārkhānī, ultimately came to advocate in favor of a popular front and coalition of secular and religious forces in defense of “democratic freedoms” against the threat of clerical domination in the 1979 revolution's aftermath.

Islamization in Bengal

This article investigates the historical and socio-cultural dimensions of Islamization in Bengal, shedding light on the processes that contributed to the region's Islamic transformation. Utilizing a comprehensive approach that incorporates historical records, literary sources, and indigenous narratives, the study examines pivotal moments and factors influencing the adoption and evolution of Islamic practices in Bengal. By delving into the intricate tapestry of Bengal's history, this research seeks to provide a nuanced understanding of the complex interplay between local traditions, external influences, and the emergence of Islam as a prominent cultural and religious force in the region.

False hope religion? Socio-economic turmoil and the rise of prosperity gospel in Zimbabwe

The socio-economic and political meltdown in Zimbabwe that began in the year 2000 caused significant changes in how people related to religion. Zimbabwe has endured one of the world's most puzzling economic catastrophes, characterised by extreme unpredictability and instability. Since the year 2000, Zimbabwe's socio-economic landscape has changed dramatically following the introduction of radical economic policies such as land redistribution and indigenisation. Since then, the economic fortunes of Zimbabwe have nosedived, with economic convulsions and unpredictability becoming the norm. This peculiar period of the country’s history has also seen far-reaching changes in the religious sector as prosperity gospel has risen to become probably the most influential religious force in the country. This paper documents how, in the face of socio-economic challenges, Zimbabweans have sought solace in charismatic churches championing prosperity. It argues that the uncertainties triggered by collapsing social and economic fabric have led to the rise of a charismatic prosperity gospel movement in Zimbabwe. Its growth has been aided by a 'spiritual healing' infrastructure that supports believers in various ways.

Gender Equality vs ‘Morality’: The Erosion of Gender Agendas in Kenya

This article seeks to interpret the recent erosion of gender equality agendas in Kenya through a lens of anti‑gender pushback, or patriarchal backlash. Since 2013, Kenyan governments have increasingly been appealing to citizens’ emotions through apparently ‘sound’ discourse, citing simple de‑contextualised narratives that resonate with many people, such as ‘family values’ and ‘Kenyan moral codes’. Gender equality – and policies and praxis to advance this – is increasingly framed as ‘non-African’, with laws, policies, and practices focused upon gender justice depicted as destructive of the ‘African family’, underscored by a particular framing of religion and morality. By including a broader understanding of the diverse manifestations of backlash within the Kenyan context, this article focuses on how notions of morality are mobilised by a range of implicated actors – government, politicians, media, and repressive religious forces – to undermine policies, laws, and discourse that seek to further gender justice in Kenya.

Exploring the reasons for the rise and fall of Taoism from the perspective of historical development: Taking several key periods as examples

The paper delves into the historical development of Taoism, analyzing its rise and fall across various Chinese dynasties. It begins with the Eastern Han dynasty, emphasizing Zhang Ling’s role in establishing Taoism as a significant religious force. The paper highlights the strategic expansion of Taoist influence under Zhang Lu in Sichuan. During the South North Dynasty, the focus shifts to Tao Hongjing’s efforts in integrating Taoist, Buddhist, and Confucian ideas, thereby creating a comprehensive deity system. The contributions of Ge Hong, especially in alchemy and the concept of ’inner alchemy’, are noted in the context of the Danding School. The peak of ancient Taoism is traced back to the Song and Yuan dynasties, underscoring the pivotal support of emperors and the roles of figures like Zhang Zhengsui and Zhang Jixian in promoting Taoism. However, the Ming and Qing dynasties saw Taoism’s decline due to the suppression of religious practices and its reduction to a mere cultural aspect for the royal family and aristocracy. The paper concludes by proposing a future path for Taoism, emphasizing the need for adaptation to modern society. It suggests that Taoism should lower barriers to entry and increase its relevance to contemporary life, learning from other religions like Christianity, to sustain its growth and significance in the modern era.

Zionism’s Redemptions: Images of the Past and Visions of the Future in Jewish Nationalism by Arieh Saposnik

Reviewed by: Zionism’s Redemptions: Images of the Past and Visions of the Future in Jewish Nationalism by Arieh Saposnik Noam Pianko Arieh Saposnik. Zionism’s Redemptions: Images of the Past and Visions of the Future in Jewish Nationalism. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2021. 300 pp. Arieh Saposnik’s Zionism’s Redemptions: Images of the Past and Visions of the Future in Jewish Nationalism confronts a delicate historiographical dilemma: How should scholars interpret the centrality of redemption rooted in messianic visions of Jewish salvation within Zionist ideologies? Ever a flashpoint in debates about nationalism and liberalism, this question about Zionism’s historical relationship with notions of redemption cannot be easily separated from the contentious politics surrounding the post-1948 Jewish state. This book offers readers a [End Page 229] much-needed path through this politicized terrain to look closely at a critical trope in modern Jewish nationalism. Messianic and redemptive political visions do not map simply onto a secular nationalist movement with democratic aspirations. Indeed, scholars tend to view messianic impulses in twentieth-century politics, whether explicitly a call for an extrahistorical religious transformation or secular efforts to reimagine the world through a singular lens, as closely linked to totalitarian movements. Visions of future forms of social and political redemption thus stand in contrast to liberal ideals of multicultural and pluralist societies. An exploration of Zionism’s redemptions must acknowledge, and grapple with, the complex backdrop that modern historians bring to the study of ideologies that espouse very particular political visions of redemption. The strength of this book lies in the nuanced framework that Saposnik adopts to unpack the complexity of redemptive tropes across various Zionist ideologies. The study rejects the bifurcated historiographical legacy of this theme—to read references to redemption as symbolic language disconnected from traditional Jewish notions of messianism or as an embrace of messianic ideas that illustrates the extrahistorical, and perhaps even totalitarian, proclivities within Jewish nationalism. By avoiding the polarizing interpretations, Saposnik opens new ways of categorizing the centrality of visions of redemption in Zionist thought. Zionism’s Redemptions offers the “redemptive dimension” of Jewish nationalism as a novel category for reframing the conversation. Based on this reconceptualization, Saposnik argues that Jewish nationalism’s emphasis on redemption often served to capture a deep yearning for actively engaging in history to bring about universal ends and liberal objectives. Redemptive visions imbued Jewish nationalism with a radical desire to return to history through a variety of ideological perspectives (rather than messianic calls to transcend history). Zionist ideologies, Saposnik argues, turned to this discourse of redemption as a shared backdrop to explore a variety of political, social, and cultural directions—from exclusivist nationalisms that emulated aspects of European totalitarians to utopian ideals of human redemption. The discourse of redemption also served as opportunity to negotiate the relationship between Zionism and contemporary political and religious forces, including European nationalism, Christian notions of salvation, and Jewish religious traditions. Zionism’s Redemptions captures this diversity through textured and nuanced case studies. These case studies illuminate the multivocal conceptions of redemption woven through Zionist ideologies. Readers have the chance to consider this trope across subjects ranging from Diaspora-oriented Jewish nationalists such as Israel Zangwill to Zionists grappling with the presence of Christians who connected their own redemptive visions to the Holy Land. From these examples, Saposnik demonstrates that redemption served as a shared vocabulary for articulating deep internal ideological fragmentations within the Zionist movement. (Thus the significance of the book title’s reference to Zionism’s “redemptions” in the plural.) Saposnik’s study provides a much-needed alternative to viewpoints that perceive particularist nationalism and progressive universalism as inherently [End Page 230] mutually exclusive forces. In contrast, Zionist thinkers developed ideas of redemption that offered national movements as the ideal path toward cosmopolitan objectives. Many of the figures included in this study held these opposing forces together in their visions for the future. Certainly, the historical success of these objectives is a topic of debate. Nevertheless, Zionism’s Redemptions serves as a site to study the complicated relationship between striving for humanistic ends and advancing a nationalist agenda. This book thus sets the foundation for engaging the relationship of nationalist ideologies...

Review: Urban Religious Events: Public Spirituality in Contested Spaces, edited by Paul Bramadat, Mar Griera, Marian Burchardt, and Julia Martínez-Ariño

Review: <i>Urban Religious Events: Public Spirituality in Contested Spaces</i>, edited by Paul Bramadat, Mar Griera, Marian Burchardt, and Julia Martínez-Ariño

Brave Children’s Day: The Sikh Version in the General Indian Context

The article examines the reaction and discussion in the Sikh environment to the decision of Indian Prime Minister Narendra Modi to introduce a new all-Indian Holiday Veer Baal Diwas (“Brave Children’s Day”), which will be celebrated every December 26 starting from 2022 in memory of the martyrdom of the Sons of the Tenth Sikh Guru Gobind Singh. The article analyzes the historical context of the plot related to the refusal of the younger Sons of Guru – Zorawar Singh and Fateh Singh to save their lives by adopting Islam and renouncing Sikhism, loyalty to Guru and Dharma. The initiative of the Prime Minister, with its general positive perception, divided the Sikhs into supporters of the unconditional acceptance of the concept of a new Holiday and those who supported the critical approach of the Shiromani Gurdwara Parbandhak Committee and the Sikh political party Akali Dal, who considered the name of the Holiday unacceptable and at odds with the Sikh religious tradition. If there is no correction of the name of the Veer Baal Diwas Holiday, then it is appropriate to predict an explosion of discontent and criticism from the relevant political and religious forces and the part of the Sikh community that has joined them.

Конституционный смысл «Устава Страны Казахов» Б. Сырттанулы (С.Б. Алашинского)

At the beginning of the twentieth century there were two directions of the national liberation movement in the Kazakh steppe, whose representatives assessed the possible ways of liberation of the Kazakh people from colonial dependence in different ways. The national-religious intelligentsia preferred the Islamization of the population in the family of the Muslim peoples of Russia, which, as a powerful cohesive religious force, would be able to break the chains of colonial dependence and lead the peoples to freedom and independence. Another direction of the national liberation movement is represented by the so-called ‘Westerners’ – the advanced national intelligentsia, which absorbed the ideas and values of the European humanitarian and democratic culture. The ideological foundations and postulates of these movements were fundamentally different, although their ultimate goal – the liberation of the people from colonial dependence, was the same. In strengthening the foundations of the ideology of the "Westerners", the essay on the history of the Kazakhs by A.N. Bukeikhan Kirghiz and the Charter of the Country of the Kazakhs developed by B. Syrttanuly on the initiative of the former played a key role. At the same time, in A. Bukeikhan’s essay, the lands originally inhabited by Kazakhs, and in the Charter of the Country of Kazakhs, the constitutional model of a parliamentary republic is presented, whose jurisdiction should be extended to this territory. Thus, the marginal boundaries of the Kazakhs’ residence were to become the state borders of the Republic of the Country of the Kazakhs.

The US Catholic Church after World War II: Reflections on therelationes ad limina(1949-54)

The article analyses the content of therelationes ad liminasubmitted to the Vatican by US bishops between 1949 and 1954. These documents shed light on the episcopate’s views and actions during the second post-war period, emphasising the growth of the US Catholic Church and its gradual advance within the US society as a relevant religious force. The US bishops’ main concerns appear to be secularism (or indifferentism), their competitive relationship with Protestant denominations, the educational system, and the use of new media, such as radio and television. The racial question also emerged.

Исследование исторической взаимосвязи между верховенством закона и суверенитетом религиозного права в конституционно-правовой системе Ирана

Studying the relationship between the rule of law and sovereignty of religious law has always been considered one of the most controversial issues. This is even more conspicuous in the Constitutional Revolution which was the result of the coalition of religious and modernist forces. Religious forces supported the Constitutional Movement with apparent such as establishing the desired system of government to implement the religious rules and stop the interference and domination of foreigners over the country, while the modernists fought for the realization of ideas such as constitutionalism, freedom and, in a nutshell, the establishment of a modern government. The Constitutional Movement and the compliance of the ruling system with the public demand to have a more substantial role in the decision-making processes while transitioning from the traditional era and approaching a certain level of modernity, inevitably, caused numerous intellectual challenges; the pre-Constitutional power structure was quite traditional and after the Constitutional Revolution, the tendency towards “law” and the centrality of “parliament” in limiting the authority of the king became the subject of profound controversy, resulting in theorizations about the possibility or impossibility of the coexistence of tradition and modernity, and hence, the rejection or acceptance of peaceful coexistence of the manifestations of the two concepts - the religion and the law. The present article seeks to examine the relationship between the rule of law and sovereignty of religious law in the Constitutional legal system.

Pietism and the Sacraments: The Life and Theology of August Hermann Francke by Peter James Yoder

Reviewed by: Pietism and the Sacraments: The Life and Theology of August Hermann Francke by Peter James Yoder Mark Granquist Pietism and the Sacraments: The Life and Theology of August Hermann Francke. By Peter James Yoder. University Park, Pennsylvania: Pennsylvania State University Press, 2021. 207 pp. The author, who teaches at Reformed Theological Seminary, Dallas, examines the career and theology of Protestant pietist leader August Hermann Francke, focusing especially on his understanding [End Page 360] of the sacraments. This book is an important addition to our understanding of Francke, especially valuable because it is in English. Francke (1663–1705) was very important in the history of Pietism, even more (arguably) than the usually recognized founder of Protestant Pietism, Philipp Jakob Spener. Although Spener certainly ignited the pietist movement with the publication of his Pia Desideria in 1675, it was Francke (and his son Gotthilf) who organized the pietist movement through the establishment of educational and social service agencies in Halle, Germany. From his position in Halle, Francke directed a wide range of theological and ecclesiastical activities around the world. Francke shaped and defended its theology and activities against its critics. The importance of Francke is readily apparent in pietist activities in missions, education, and social services in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. What is less well known is the importance of Francke in shaping and developing Pietism as a theological movement seeking to remain within the confessional boundaries of Lutheranism. Scorn has been heaped on the pietists from several sides: from confessional-orthodox Lutherans who saw it a dangerous deviation from Lutheran dogmatic truth, and from later liberals who saw it as narrow-minded religious moralism. Certainly, it is possible to find examples of both tendencies, but it is inaccurate to blame these tendencies on Francke and those around him. Francke had a sophisticated theological system rooted not only in Luther and the Lutheran theological confessions, but also in the spirit of Luther's reformation, which was much more open to the themes of renewal and sanctification than Francke's critics would allow. Francke was able to develop a theology for the new awakening movement that allowed most pietists to stay within the bounds of Lutheranism, and to enliven and revive it as a religious force. To explore this, Yoder examines the centrality of the sacraments in Francke's theology, especially through his catechetical sermons. In good Lutheran fashion, Francke preached regularly on Luther's Small Catechism. Central to his thought was the idea of spiritual rebirth, or conversion, in which the believer seeks an awakening of [End Page 361] faith. But Francke constantly spoke of this awakening or rebirth (the word "conversion" has too many American overtones) as coming through the influence of the community of believers in the regular worship of the church and its sacraments. When Francke spoke of the sacraments, Baptism and the Lord's Supper, he did so within the framework of this experience of rebirth and awakening. The outward, formal elements of the sacraments themselves were a key in driving the believer to a deeper spiritual life. In this he wished to avoid a formalistic or perhaps mechanistic understanding of the sacraments—that they automatically delivered benefits regardless of the believer. To some of Francke's critics this seemed like he was moving away from traditional Lutheranism, but Francke thought he could find justification for this position in Luther's own catechism and other works. Francke was no separatist, and argued against those more radical pietists who sought to define a "pure" congregation of true believers as the true church. For Francke, the awakened believers in the church pushed the larger Christian community toward a renewal of the entire community. The question remains: what of the further trajectory of this theological emphasis? Some would fault Francke for later developments in Protestantism. Protestantism in the eighteenth century was developing and changing, but was this because of Francke, or was his nuanced understanding of the church and sacraments ignored? This work finally does not fully answer this question, but wisely leaves it for others to explore. Whether in the end you come down for or against Francke (or somewhere in the middle), this volume makes important...

A Critique of Philosophical Shamanism

A Critique of Philosophical Shamanism

Anxieties of the Dominant: Legal, Social, and Religious in the Politics of Religious Conversion in India

Abstract The promulgation of the new state-level conversion laws in India or some changes in already existing ones by ordinances is premised upon various conspiracy theories of Hindu fundamentalists against Muslims. Implicit in and placed at the centre of these new anti-conversion laws and public debates thereof is the conspiracy theory of love-jihad that Muslim men lure Hindu women on the pretext of love and get them convert to Islam to eventually outnumber the Hindu majority. This article argues that the anti-conversion laws in India result from anxieties of the dominant caste and class regarding gender and caste, leading to the imposition of the mainstream orthodox religious and political will upon the marginalized. The creation of anti-conversion laws is based on assumptions, fears, conspiracy theories, and moral and religious values primarily shared by the ‘upper-caste’ section across the political spectrum. Furthermore, it also shows a growing nexus between conservative religious forces and state apparatuses that restricts religious and social mobility of the marginalized sections through legal changes.

Re-Thinking Islam and Islamism: Hamas Women between Religion, Secularism and Neo-Liberalism

In the 2016 Bir Zeit University elections Hamas’ women launched two videos in which un-veiled, western-dressed young girls urged viewers to vote for Hamas. The videos sparked a passionate debate: Religious forces accused the girls of being ‘westernized’ and abandoning the norm of Islamic modesty; while secular forces accused them of promoting a form of women’s empowerment linked to their success in accommodating religious values to secular ones. The debate mirrors scholarly works on Islamist women’s subjectivity that tend to adhere to the dominant liberal analytical frames and lack a clear problematization of the relationship between Islam, gender, and new forms of liberal and secular sensitivity, as Islamic practices, secularization, and neo-liberal projects are seen as opposed. Most of the literature that analyzes women within Islamist movements overlooks the historical and economic trajectories that have operated to shift the relation between gender, sexuality and religion. In 2017, I conducted extensive field research in the Occupied Palestinian Territories among Hamas women with the objective to unwrap the relationship between Islamism and the secular/neo-liberal and nationalist project instituted in the West Bank. By taking distance from the assumption that religion and secularism are opposing poles of a binary, this article provides an understanding of Hamas women’s shifting subjectivities in the encounter with new forms of secular modernity, an encounter that signifies a shifting understanding of the categories of secular and religious, and which I analyze through a new understanding of women’s bodies and sexuality.

When crackdowns and cooptation fail: What constrains religious opposition forces in Bangladesh?

When crackdowns and cooptation fail: What constrains religious opposition forces in Bangladesh?

Seeking Rights from the Left: Gender, Sexuality, and the Latin American Pink Tide ed. by Elisabeth Jay Friedman

Reviewed by: Seeking Rights from the Left: Gender, Sexuality, and the Latin American Pink Tide ed. by Elisabeth Jay Friedman Juliana Restrepo Sanín Seeking Rights from the Left: Gender, Sexuality, and the Latin American Pink Tide. By Elisabeth Jay Friedman (ed). Durham: Duke University Press, 2019, p. 344, $29.95. Latin America has made significant gains in the legal protection of women's and sexual minorities' rights, including comprehensive laws against gender-based violence, political participation, and some legal protections for LGBT+ folks. These advancements are somewhat recent, coinciding with the so-called Left Turn that started with the election of Hugo Chávez en Venezuela in 1998. The increased legal recognition of women and LGBT+ rights is sometimes lauded as an achievement of the Pink Tide. However, as Elisabeth Jay Friedman and the contributors to Seeking Rights From the Left: Gender, Sexuality, and the Latin American Pink Tide make clear, the relationship between progressive gender and sexuality policies and the Left is not as clear and straightforward as some suggests. Friedman's book offers a more nuanced comparative perspective building on Mala Htun's (2003) and Htun and S. Laurel Weldon's (2010) framework for analyzing gender and sexuality policies. Seeking Rights from The Left shows that, despite advancements, Left-wing governments in Latin America "relied on heteropatriarchal relations of power" and engaged in "strategic trade-offs among gender and sexual rights" (p. 3), promoting maternalist and familist policies instead of transformative policies to achieve gender and sexuality justice. The contributors evaluate the Left's policies in diverse areas, including welfare, redistribution, and poverty; political representation; violence against women; and bodily autonomy and reproductive rights. Importantly, the book finds that there were important advancements in regards to poverty alleviation and women's political participation. Despite the significant increase in women's political participation, which surpassed 25% regionally, and in some countries reached 50% in national legislatures, Left governments frequently engaged in "Pinkwashing:" advancing (some) LGBT+ and women's rights to obscure blatant and broader violations of human rights – including those of women and LGBT+ folks. In addition, policies and perspective that challenge heterosexual and cisgender men's privilege –what Friedman calls 'countercultural' policies – not only did not significantly advance during the left turn but in some cases were reversed. What explains these variations? Seeking Rights from the Left finds that state institutionalization and alliances between the left and religious forces are key determinants in the types of gender and sexuality policies that governments adopt. But good will and strong institutions are not enough. Rather, the strength of women's, feminist, and LGBT+ movements, and their ability to make alliances among themselves and with state actors in women's policy agencies and anti-discrimination institutions are key for advancing the policies with the [End Page 243] most potential to undermine heteropatriarchy. Importantly, Seeking Rights from the Left shows that improvements in the descriptive representation – that is, increased numbers of women in politics – are not an indicator of a country's move toward significant and transformative policy changes in support of women and LGBT+ rights. Despite these limitations, there were some important transformations promoted by some of the governments of the Pink Tide. In the recognition and protection of women's and LGBT+ rights, Uruguay stands out as the country with the most significant progress. Despite few women in Congress, feminist and LGBT+ activists used a variety of mobilizational strategies and built alliances to secure protections for some rights, including abortion, affirmative action for trans folks, and marriage equality. Even in this more welcoming context, poverty-relief and social welfare policies still relied and entrenched traditional gender roles. The limits of the left turn are even more evident when looking at the most radical governments: Venezuela, Nicaragua, Ecuador, and Bolivia. Although all these countries made important advancements in reducing poverty and inequality, progress relied on the instrumentalization of women's organizations and the reproduction of maternalist and heteronormative views of the state and the family. In the two most extreme cases, Nicaragua and Ecuador, the Left turn not only failed to transform gender relations, but significantly reversed women's rights – despite international praise for (very limited) advancements in the protection...

The Multiple Meanings of the Shona Traditional Performance Theatre (dariro): Unpacking the Concept

The paper discusses the multiple meanings of the Shona traditional theatre, commonly known as dariro. In this paper, dariro is taken to refer to traditional theatre in which socialization, singing, instrument playing, incantations, dance and other artistic skills are enacted, especially during social or religious events. The data that furnishes this paper was collected from the Shona people using a qualitative ethnographic methodology in which Shona culture bearers from Mashonaland East Province of Zimbabwe were consulted in order to solicit information concerning the nature, aesthetic functions, and dynamics that surround the concept of dariro. The data gathered during the fieldwork indicated that dariro is perceived as a traditional theatre designed to create space for individuals or group performance, especially in dance, poetry, or singing. The traditional theatre was also viewed as the social platform on which the Shona epistemic and ontological philosophy of life, chivanhu is enacted. The findings also indicated that the events that unfold within the confines of dariro, are characterised by timelessness, team work and events that are aesthetic and socially conjugal. Dariro can be created in an open space or under a tree depending on the nature of the context, or can be constructed inside a traditional hut, banya with participants demarcating the boundaries to create the inner chamber in which events are presented. The paper concludes that dariro is pivotal in collectively drawing the participants' attention towards one unity of purpose. As such, it acts as a platform where social, physical, and religious forces converge.

Ravenna: Capital of Empire, Crucible of Europe, by Judith Herrin

This monograph is an ambitious, rewarding and detailed history of the city of Ravenna, spanning the period from its designation as imperial capital in the early fifth century to its Carolingian spoliations in the ninth. It is not so much an urban history as a comprehensive account of the political and religious forces operating in Europe and the Mediterranean in these centuries and shaping the context in which Ravenna can best be analysed. While Ravenna’s history has been the subject of a vast scholarship, including at least three significant recent monographs, Judith Herrin’s approach is based on a fundamental shift of perspective: she rejects the label of ‘Late Antiquity’ as a useful periodisation, choosing to speak of ‘Early Christendom’ instead. Christianity, Herrin argues, was the defining characteristic of the era; the pervasive element in the construction of authority, economy, built environment and social structures. This is not just a semantic...