Religious Disputes Research Articles

Sexual Violence and Psychotrauma in Roxane Gay's An Untamed State and Nabard Fouad's Parrot: A Psychoanalytic Study

The History of humanity has widely witnessed violation of human rights during the wars and in the political, ethnic and religious disputes. Heartbreakingly, most of the victims are women and children. Females in general and underage girls are vulnerable to rape and sexual violence either to satisfy the lustful captors or to be used as ransom. Most awfully, in many cases, the fighting groups, terrorists and thugs target females as effective weapons against each other since in several societies women are regarded as the honor of the families, such as what happened to the Yazidi Kurds in Shangal, North of Iraq when ISIS terrorists attacked their city. The detainers think only of achieving their aims and never care about what will happen to the prey. This paper shows how the male captors rape and sexually abuse the female captives during their confinement, and more significantly to unveil how the trauma affects the victims after they get their freedom. What happens to a woman when she is taken by a group of ruthless lustful men is expectable, but how she continues is incomprehensible. The study selects two novels An Untamed State by Roxane Gay (2014) and Parrot (Tutti) by Nabard Fouad (2015) which narrate the story of women abducted and raped by their abductors. The psychological battle the women suffer from does not end in the prison rooms, but it will continue and actually it will never end since the victims develop post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) and can never live a normal life thereafter. The sufferers are not criminals; they are mere victims of political and religious rage.

Latinity in Early Islamic North Africa

This paper explores the social function of Latin in the early Islamic Maghrib and the concerns of the local communities who continued to use the language beyond the Arab capture of Carthage in 697/98. By focussing on those Latin sources whose origins can be assigned to North Africa between the end of the seventh and the mid-thirteenth century, it considers evidence for the use of Latin as a language of Christian commemoration, worship, and education; the survival of Latin and then Romance as a spoken language in the medieval Maghrib; the role of Latin as at least a short-lived language of religious disputation between the region’s new Muslim ruling class and their Christian and Jewish subjects; and the use of Latin as a language of trans-Mediterranean communications. The language probably enjoyed a more robust afterlife in Islamic North Africa than scholars have sometimes imagined, yet the way in which Latin was deployed in mediating relationships overseas may ultimately have undermined sustained interest in the region by medieval European Christians.

‘India @75: Religion and Citizenship in India’

As India celebrates 75 years of independence, fresh questions are being raised about who is an Indian. This essay introduces a special section of Studies in Indian Politics which puts forward answers to this question considering recent tectonic changes in India’s political climate and party system. We outline how religion is being increasingly adopted as a filter through which citizenship is decided—both in formal, legal terms as well as in informal terms. The special section delves deeper into this terrain, exploring several critical themes: de jure changes to India’s citizenship regime, the relationship between Hindu nationalism and liberal democracy, the judiciary’s role in adjudicating religious disputes, the Muslim community’s response to recent policy shifts and the changing nature of electoral coalition building. Taken together, the articles in this section represent a signal contribution to ongoing debates in India—and elsewhere—on democracy, nationalism and inclusion.

An Analysis of the Recently Issued Language Policy in IOK: Process, Causes and Influences

The language policy in IOK (Indian occupied Kashmir, i.e. Jammu and Kashmir) has been changed recently and a new “five official languages” policy has been established. This paper untangles the three steps of the language policy change: modifying the Constitution, enacting The Jammu and Kashmir Reorganisation Act, 2019 and passing The Jammu and Kashmir Official Languages Act, 2020 and reveals the root causes of the change by collecting data from the media and historical documents. Results show that the language policy change in this area has been affected by many factors such as Hindu Chauvinism, the nation-state ideology, local identity, and issues of minorities’ language right. This paper then makes a further analysis of the possible influences of the new policy: exacerbating religious disputes, aggravating separatism, and undermining social justice and complicating the regional situation. The implication can be made from the language policy change in IOK is that language policy should be made based on the language-as-resource orientation and a comprehensive analysis of the specific historical and social conditions of a country or an area so that it can promote social harmony.

What is democratic backsliding?

What is democratic backsliding?

Religious Diversity and its Legal Problems

The basis for freedom of religion in Indonesia is regulated in Article 28E, Article 28I, Article 29 of the 1945 Constitution and Article 4, Article 22 of Law Number 39 of 1999 concerning Human Rights. However, this freedom is not absolute and must be limited to maintain religious harmony in Indonesia. This study aims to determine the actions that often trigger religious disputes with blasphemy or blasphemy of religion either directly or through various online media. This type of research is doctrinal or normative. In this study, all norms, legal principles, legal documents, court decisions, laws and regulations related to religious freedom in Indonesia will be studied. Based on the results of research to maintain religious harmony, the government issued Law Number 1 of 1946 concerning the Criminal Code, Law Number 1/PNPS/1965 concerning the Prevention of Abuse and/or Blasphemy of Religion, Law Number 40 of 2008 concerning the Elimination of Race and Religious Blasphemy. Religion. Ethnic Discrimination, Law Number 19 of 2016 concerning Amendments to Law Number 11 of 2008 concerning Electronic Transaction Information. In addition to legal action against perpetrators of blasphemy, the government and the community must work together to maintain religious tolerance and prevent fanaticism towards their respective religious identities so that it has the potential to cause horizontal conflicts between religious adherents in Indonesia.

Religious Diversity and its Legal Problems

The basis for freedom of religion in Indonesia is regulated in Article 28E, Article 28I, Article 29 of the 1945 Constitution and Article 4, Article 22 of Law Number 39 of 1999 concerning Human Rights. However, this freedom is not absolute and must be limited to maintain religious harmony in Indonesia. This study aims to determine the actions that often trigger religious disputes with blasphemy or blasphemy of religion either directly or through various online media. This type of research is doctrinal or normative. In this study, all norms, legal principles, legal documents, court decisions, laws and regulations related to religious freedom in Indonesia will be studied. Based on the results of research to maintain religious harmony, the government issued Law Number 1 of 1946 concerning the Criminal Code, Law Number 1/PNPS/1965 concerning the Prevention of Abuse and/or Blasphemy of Religion, Law Number 40 of 2008 concerning the Elimination of Race and Religious Blasphemy. Religion. Ethnic Discrimination, Law Number 19 of 2016 concerning Amendments to Law Number 11 of 2008 concerning Electronic Transaction Information. In addition to legal action against perpetrators of blasphemy, the government and the community must work together to maintain religious tolerance and prevent fanaticism towards their respective religious identities so that it has the potential to cause horizontal conflicts between religious adherents in Indonesia.

Manajemen Kurikulum dalam Bingkai Moderasi Beragama di Era Digital di Ma’had Al-Jami’ah Ulil Absar IAIN Ponorogo

The political position in the Islamic struggle was shifted by the emergence of the da'wah movement as an alternative political movement to realise the idea of ​​​​Islamic struggle. These new developments encourage the emergence of new developments of political thought among young people. Thus, it is necessary to strengthen the religious perspective that does not lean towards young people's extreme right or left. At IAIN Ponorogo, students who participate in the ma'had program are given the provisions included in the curriculum of Ma'had Al-Jami'ah Ulil Absar. Students who join the ma'had program are known as mahasantri. They are expected to develop themselves and compete in the digitalization era without leaving their Islamic creed. This paper will discuss curriculum management in the religious moderation framework in the digitalization era at Ma'had Al-Jami'ah Ulil Absar IAIN Ponorogo. This article employs descriptive-qualitative research. It provides descriptions of the field's background, characteristics, and distinctive characters. The data describes the description of the activities or behaviour of the subject and other documents obtained through interviews, observation and documentation. The results showed that general curriculum management within the framework of religious moderation includes planning, organizing, implementing and evaluating curriculum. The religious moderation program was actualized online every Saturday, guided by Muallim, who already have a certificate of religious moderation. Even though there are many obstacles in learning religious moderation online, it does not dampen the enthusiasm of the students to continue learning and participating in religious moderation studies with the hope that students will be able to understand and practice religion side by side with other religions without any religious disputes and be able to spread Islam digitally.

Scholarly Book Collecting in Restoration Scotland: The Library of the Revd James Nairn (1629–1678). By Murray C. T. Simpson

The study of private book ownership in England in the seventeenth century has seen great leaps forward in the past decade, culminating in David Pearson’s 2018 Lyell Lectures Book Ownership in Stuart England, reviewed above. However, private book ownership in early modern Scotland has not been serviced by the same level of detailed case studies or sweeping overviews of its southern neighbour. Murray Simpson’s Scholarly Book Collecting in Restoration Scotland, then, is a welcome addition to our growing understanding of the bibliographical landscape of a country which was quickly developing in economic and academic prowess but in the midst of ongoing civil wars and religious disputes. Simpson, former Special Collections Librarian at the University of Edinburgh, focuses his study on one of his predecessors, the Rev’d James Nairn, who, amongst many other things, briefly held the office of librarian to the same university in 1652–53. Nairn, who matriculated...

On M. Yu. Lermontov’s “Sweets” and “Bitter Medicines”: An Attempt at “Interlinear” Reading of the Preface of A Hero of Our Time

This article analyses the Preface for the second edition of A Hero of Our Time by M. Yu. Lermontov written in the spring of 1841, which has not yet become the subject of a special study. The logic of the study is based on one of the provisions of V. G. Belinsky’s critical work on Lermontov’s novel postulating the principles of “interlinear” reading of the Preface, which, according to the critic, can only contribute to the correct understanding of the author’s intention of this text. The article pays special attention to the figurative and symbolic structure of the final paragraph of the Preface, potentially containing references to the texts of the Holy Scripture. The authors provide arguments about the conscious orientation of Lermontov’s thought to biblical sources, which is caused by the writer’s reaction to the first critical responses about the novel, where an important role belongs to the review of S. O. Burachok, as well as a deep creative understanding of “religious disputes” with V. F. Odoevsky, which took place at the time of Lermontov’s work on the Preface to the second edition of the book. The conceptual nature of the statement “people have been fed enough with sweets; their stomachs have deteriorated because of this: bitter medicines, caustic truths are needed” is notable in the dialogic discourse of the author’s Preface. This phrase actualises the reader’s different-quality perception of a literary work and implements the semantics of likening a book to an edible thing and is an obvious reminiscence from chapter 10 of The Revelation of Saint John the Theologian. The phenomenological approach based on this study within the framework of hermeneutic and biographical methods makes it possible to establish that the purpose of Lermontov’s book as a “bitter medicine”, which goes back to the symbolism of bitterness in the Apostolic Revelation, is directly related to the author’s intention. It prompts the reader to realise the illusory “sweetness” of his moral superiority over the hero, the perception of the value meanings of the novel as a single spiritual principle, in which both the world of the hero and the world of the reader exist. In conclusion, the article points to the metatextual unity of the Preface of A Hero of Our Time and the poem Prophet, whose marker is reminiscences from the Revelation of Saint John the Theologian, which makes it possible to speak about the poet’s book as a prophetic novel.

The Role of Nationalism in Arab-Iranian Relations: Historical and Ideological Dimensions

For the last decades Iran has been playing significant role in Middle Eastern politics. Tehran’s rooted involvement in Arab’s political environments provokes tensions and hostilities in Arab-Iranian relations. The author believes that historical legacy of Arab-Iranian interactions has been still determined some important characteristics of Arab-Iranian relations. In this article the author investigates the role of nationalism and national building process in Arab countries and Iran. He shows that the rise of national movement and emergence of new nation-states based on different ideological principals and theoretical models politicized historical Arab-Iranian ethnic and sectarian differences and cultural rivalries. The author studies how developments of various forms of nationalism in Arab countries and Iran, their approaches to national state building affected their relations. The author considers that both Arabs and Iran have been challenged the internal political dynamics and regional transformations were forced to instrumentalized nationalism as a protective tool to secure and legitimize their state suzerainty, establish their presence and provide their interests in the region. In practice, regards their historical territorial, ethnic, religious disputes, both Arabs and Iran frequently exaggerated Iranian threats to Arabism and overestimated Arab nationalism, pan-Arabism as Arab’s ambitions for regional leadership. These fears converted into real politic have spoiled Arab Iranian relations. The author stresses that emphasizing on Islamic feelings at the expense of particular nationalism in Iran after Islamic revolution in 1979 and giving up secular ideas in favor of Islamism in Arab countries after the “Arab Spring” brought neither reconciliation, nor normalization in the Arab-Iranian relations. The author pays special attention to the dynamic of Iranian nationalism in view of the developments in power mechanism of Tehran’s politics in the Middle East.

From Folk Festivals for “Tourism” to the “Protection” of National Important Folk Cultural Properties: A Discourse on the Preservation Process and Future Maintenance of Cultural Resources for the Keelung Ghost Festival

<p>雞籠中元祭為我國首度以國家級民俗文化資產保存位階所登錄/指定的文化資產，每逢時序進入舊曆七月，位於臺灣本島最北端的港都民眾，無不開始準備普度祭祀，迎接基隆年中盛事的慶讚中元。這場緣起於清領時期漳泉移民因土地墾殖、商業甚至信仰因素摩擦而武裝衝突，慘烈的死傷在地方大老調解平息下，將雙方死難者骸骨合葬祭祀，並以字姓輪值辦理中元普度來普施孤幽，藉此打破過往以原鄉祖籍為重的局勢，進而達到港都社群的和諧安樂。百餘年來，雞籠中元祭在輪值字姓領銜及社群一同傳承延續下，成為國內首屈一指的民俗節慶。近期以來，不僅於2001年獲觀光局列為臺灣十二大民俗節慶之一，2007年獲基隆市政府依據《文化資產保存法》，將雞籠中元祭登錄為「民俗及有關文物」。隔年，雞籠中元祭更被行政院文化建設委員會指定為「重要民俗及有關文物」。從獲得縣市級文資法定身分的登錄認定，到國家級文資法定身分的指定，雞籠中元祭成為臺灣民俗文化資產指定及登錄行政處分落實先例。循序這項民俗文化的文資化歷程，彷彿看到臺灣民俗文化資產行政措施落實的縮影。歷年來，官方挹注的經費多用於「保存紀錄製作」，然而近年來隨著傳統文化延續面臨世代傳承不易的局面下，適時系統性整合雞籠中元祭及相關無形文化資產，以這項重要民俗做為社群的傳承母體，將是積極且值得期待的民俗文化資產保存傳承之路。</p> <p> </p><p>The Keelung Ghost Festival* is Taiwan’s first designated National Important Folk Cultural Properties Asset. Every July in the lunar calendar, the people of Keelung Port become busily prepare ritual offerings to celebrate this grand major festival in Keelung. The event originates from in armed conflicts that resulted in many casualties between immigrants from Quanzhou and Zhangzhou, two port cities in China’s Fujian Province, due to who fought over land reclamation, commerce and even religious disputes. After mediation by local elders, the conflict eased and the dead were buried together, to receiving joint ritual offerings jointly. Clans of with different last names would take turns organizing a rituals, with offerings for wandering spirits. The measure was designed to break the previous tradition of people joining opposing sides based on their ancestral hometown, and aimed to ensure harmony in the Keelung port city.</p> <p> For more than a century, various clans and social groups took turns to organize the Keelung Ghost Festival, and it has since become the leading folk festival in Taiwan. In 2001, the event was included in the list of top 12 major folk festivals in Taiwan by the Tourism Bureau. In 2007, Keelung City registered the festival as a “folk tradition and relevant cultural artifacts asset” in accordance with the Cultural Heritage Preservation Act. In the following year, the Council for Cultural Affairs designated the Keelung Ghost Festival as a an “National Important Folk Cultural Properties Asset”. The ritual festival thus set a precedent in for the completion of administrative procedures to designate and register a folk cultural asset of in Taiwan.</p> <p> Over the years, government funding has mostly been used for record the preservation of records. In recent years, the task of passing on Taiwan’s cultural heritage to the next generations has gradually become more difficult. Thus the appropriate integration designation of the Keelung Ghost Festival and its relevant intangible cultural assets as of national importance, along with the creation of a heritage group focusing on this important folk tradition, are praiseworthy contributions to ensuring the continuance of Taiwan’s cultural assets and heritage is an effort worthy of attention.</p> <p> </p>

Ravenna: Capital of Empire, Crucible of Europe by Judith Herrin

Reviewed by: Ravenna: Capital of Empire, Crucible of Europe by Judith Herrin Edward M. Schoolman Ravenna: Capital of Empire, Crucible of Europe Judith Herrin Princeton. Princeton University Press, 2020. Pp. xxxvii + 537. ISBN: 978-0-691-15343-8 There are many ways to locate the city of Ravenna. Geographically, it rested at the southern edge of where the wide Po valley met the Adriatic in northern Italy. Politically, it was central to the late Roman empire and its immediate successors in Italy, serving as the capital for both the Ostrogothic kingdom and, for more than two hundred years, the Byzantine exarchate of Italy, before finally being seized by the Lombards (if only temporarily). Into the Middle Ages, this past made the city a desired location on royal itineraries in the age of the Carolingians. Culturally, it was the recipient of imperial and significant local patronage in its late Roman and early Byzantine guises, leading to the constructions of some of the best-preserved churches of the period, resplendent in their glittering mosaics, but was also the site of the production of other more mobile items, exemplified by illuminated Gothic bibles on the one hand, and texts like the anonymous early eighth century Cosmography on the other. In Ravenna: Capital of Empire, Crucible of Europe, Judith Herrin acknowledges the multiple positions of the city, while locating Ravenna as an integral node in a much wider context by connecting its history to the broader transitions from the late Roman world into a differentiated medieval Europe. Despite the broad stokes that this entails, Herrin masterfully ties together the details that make this book compelling. In thirty-seven chapters, neatly subdivided into smaller sections sprinkled with full color plates, she touches on Ravenna's frequently central role in historical events, including the cultural production of the city. Her analysis ultimately showcases the utility of understanding the fortunes of one place as a lens for viewing larger patterns of early medieval history. While Ravenna's periodization and general scope match Herrin's 1989 The Formation of Christendom, this volume nevertheless represents an entirely different approach in its execution. There is, in fact, nothing quite like this volume. Its focus could make it a fitting companion to Deborah Mauskopf Deliyannis's Ravenna in Late Antiquity, which centered on the material and built environment. It nevertheless stands on its own as a way to trace the development of the Mediterranean from the reign of Constantine to that of Charlemagne. Herrin pulls in major figures like Theodoric and Justinian, but is equally adept and weaving in the activities of the Popes, Ravenna's bishops, and its Byzantine Exarchs; religious disputes including Arianism, the Three Chapters Controversy, and Iconoclasm; and even the lives of soldiers, monks, priests, Goths, and the workers of land who appear (often only once) in the church of Ravenna's rich collection of preserved papyri and parchment documents. She also taps into relatively obscure sources to uncover unlikely connections, like the anonymous Cosmographia composed in Ravenna around 700 ce by a scholar who "travelled" through the literature that was on hand, revealing the now-lost books and maps available during these so-called "dark ages." Designed for a more general readership, Ravenna would serve as an ideal a [End Page 317] book for the classroom, perhaps in some version of a course on a long Late Antiquity or the parallel early medieval version, "From Constantine to Charlemagne." With its clear organization, short chapters, and chronological breadth, Ravenna stands as a central point of balance between more traditional narratives of the early Middle Ages in the "West," and narratives that encompass a wider, multi-cultural perspective on Late Antiquity and highlight the contributions of the Byzantine Empire to this history. More broadly speaking, as a history of the Mediterranean and ultimately centered on the transition between "modes" of antiquity and those of the Middle Ages, Herrin's work here is satisfying in its elasticity, moving its focus from one tightly bound to the confines of Ravenna to a much wider field of vision to relate how major political and cultural changes rippled through the sea. As of the writing of this review, Ravenna has...

«Астраханские епархиальные ведомости» как источник по истории православной миссии в Калмыцкой степи в начале XX в.

Introduction. The Journal of Astrakhan Eparchy (Russ. Astrakhanskie eparkhialnye vedomosti) was the official periodical of Astrakhan and Yenotayevka Eparchy in 1875 to 1918. Quite a share of the published articles dealt with household life, customs, religion of the Kalmyks, and dissemination of Christianity in Kalmyk Steppe. Goals. The study aims to identify, analyze, investigate and introduce materials contained in journal issues and covering the actual state and directions for further development of Russian missionary activity in early 20th century Kalmyk Steppe. Materials and methods. So, the paper analyzes journal issues published between 1900 and 1918. Results. A total of seventeen related articles authored by clerics of Astrakhan and Yenotayevka Eparchy were studied. The publications cluster into five groups as follows: messages on Kalmyk converts, analytical reports on Russian missionary activity in Kalmyk Steppe, religious dispute between Orthodox priest and Lama, articles on the history of Orthodox Mission in Kalmyk Steppe, reports on visits to missionary centers paid by Astrakhan Governor and Bishop. The work also evaluates the significance of the examined materials for historiography of Russian missionary activities in Kalmyk Steppe at the beginning of the 20th century. Conclusions. The importance of the examined materials on the history and development of Orthodox Christian Mission in Kalmyk Steppe is determined by that their authors — Orthodox priests — were direct participants of missionary activities proper and often used archival materials that never survived to the present. Objective analyses of the Mission’s successes and problems by authors of publications makes it possible to supplement the existing set of sources on the history of Orthodox Christianity in Kalmyk Steppe.

Komunikasi Wartawan dalam Reportase konflik Agama

This study aims to explore the meaning and motives of journalists in reporting on religious conflicts and explore journalists' views on the root causes and solutions of religious disputes. This study uses a qualitative approach; the considerations are expected to produce descriptive data, both written, oral, and the behavior of journalists in reporting. The results show that journalists generally interpret religious conflicts as enjoyable, meaningful, and sensitive events. The motives of journalists to report on religious conflicts are more in the interest of documenting newsworthy events, placing problems in a balanced way, and straightening out information confusion in the community. The causes of conflict occur due to differences in perspectives, misunderstandings, intolerance, excessive fanaticism, weak legal umbrella, government indecision, immature religious understanding, the inability of religious leaders to suppress mass emotions, and the presence of certain interested parties. The conflict solution that must be carried out is the existence of a clear and firm legal settlement umbrella and the importance of dialogue in policy formulation..

Der Religionsdisput in Feofan ProkopovyčsVladimir

SummaryUsually Feofan Prokopovyč’stragedokomedija Vladimiris considered an early example of the author’s ecclesiastical reform concerns, which he realized in the Russian Empire from 1716 onwards. However, a detailed analysis of the religious dispute, which is at the center of the play, and its literary sources gives rise to a more biographical reading, according to which the young author recommended himself to the Kyiv-Mohyla Academy for his work as a professor in rhetoric. He, the former supporter of the Union, emphasizes the Greek roots of Eastern Christianity and presents himself as a loyal representative of Moscow-orientated Orthodoxy. There is no evidence that he disagreed with Hetman Mazepa on the political position of Ukraine at the time.

MULTILATERAL CONFLICTS OF PALESTINE - HISTORY, PRESENT AND TRENDS

Palestine, a historical land inhabited by both Jews and Arabs, has been the source of disagreement for the two ethnic communities since their establishment in this territory. Over time, as a consequence of this antagonism, the Middle East region has hosted a multilateral conflict generated by a number of factors (historical, ethnic, national and religious), which is currently manifested in three subsequent disputes: Arab-Israeli, Israeli-Palestinian and religious. The social dispute was initially generated by the inter-communal misunderstandings between Arabs and Jews, in the territory of the British mandate of Palestine and degenerated into a series of wars between Israel and the Arab states that led to an open armed conflict between Israel and Gaza. Also, the religious dispute, which permanently accompanied the other two, is related to the equally claiming by Jews and Muslims of both the entire territory of this historical land, as well as Jerusalem. The paper is intended to be a clarification of what the historic Palestinian region represents and how it has transformed under the impact of the conflict generated against the background of the desire for statehood expressed by Jews and Arabs in the same space. In the following, some aspects will be shown presenting the historical sources of territoriality, statehood and conflict in the region, and current forms of Palestinian multilateral conflict, as well as the predominant side of the conflict in the contemporary period, focusing on developments in the first half of 2021, but also some trends that are expected in the evolution of the Palestinian issue.

Poems by Polish Female Poets and the Burning Issue of Religion

The aim of this paper is to show the presence of religion and the particular evolution of lyrical matrixes connected to religion in the Polish poems of female poets. There is a particular presence of women in the roots of the Polish literary and lyrical traditions. For centuries, the image of a woman with a pen in her hand was one of the most important imponderabilia. Until the 19th century, Polish female poets continued to be rare. Where female poets do appear in the historical record, they are linked to institutions such as monasteries, where female intellectuals were able to find relative liberty and a refuge. Many of the poetic forms they used in the 16th, late 17th, and 18th centuries were typically male in origin and followed established models. In the 19th century, the specific image of the mother as a link to the religious portrait of the Madonna and the Mother of God (the first Polish poem presents Bogurodzica, the Virgin Mary, the Mother of Jesus) reinforces women’s new presence. From Adam Mickiewicz’s poem Do matki Polki (To Polish Mother), the term “Polish mother” becomes a separate literary, epistemological, and sociological category. Throughout the 20th century (with some exceptions), the impact of Romanticism and its poetical and religious models remained alive, even if they underwent some modifications. The period of communism, as during the Period of Partitions and the Second World War, privileged established models of lyric, where the image of women reproduced Romantic schema in poetics from the 19th-century canons, which are linked to religion. Religious poetry is the domain of few female author-poets who look for inner freedom and religious engagement (Anna Kamieńska) or for whom religion becomes a form of therapy in a bodily illness (Joanna Pollakówna). This, however, does not constitute an otherness or specificity of the “feminine” in relation to male models. Poets not interested in reproducing the established roles reach for the second type of lyrical expression: replacing the “mother” with the “lover” and “the priestess of love” (the Sappho model) present in the poetry of Maria Pawlikowska-Jasnorzewska. In the 20th century, the “religion” of love in women’s work distances them from the problems of the poetry engaged in social and religious disputes and constitutes a return to pagan rituals (Hymn idolatrous of Halina Poświatowska) or to the carnality of the body, not necessarily overcoming previous aesthetic ideals (Anna Świrszczyńska). It is only since the 21st century that the lyrical forms of Polish female poets have significantly changed. They are linked to the new place of the Catholic Church in Poland and the new roles of Polish women in society. Four particular models are analysed in this study, which are shown through examples of the poetry of Genowefa Jakubowska-Fijałkowska, Justyna Bargielska, Anna Augustyniak, and Malina Prześluga with the Witches’ Choir.

Peran Tokoh Agama Dalam Pencegahan Konflik di Tengah Masyarakat Multikultural Pada Era Digital

The goal of this research is to find out how religious leaders may help to avert conflict in a multicultural society. This study took place in Medan, Indonesia's North Sumatra Province. To conduct the study, the author employs a qualitative method in the form of a case study. Direct interviews with religious leaders from Islam, Christianity, Protestantism, Hinduism, Buddhism, Confucianism, religious organization leaders, and government officials were used to gather data. The Miles and Huberman approach was used to examine the interview data thematically. According to the findings of the study, religious leaders make three efforts to prevent conflict: I use online applications such as YouTube, Facebook, websites, and zoom meetings to disseminate religious teachings, and ii) using online applications such as youtube, Facebook, websites, and zoom meetings to disseminate religious teachings. iii) They hold regular meetings, both online and offline, to debate religious moderation and conflict prevention; iii) develop collaboration between religious harmony forums and security forces in the prevention of religious disputes. Religious leaders' involvement in a multicultural society plays a vital role in conveying information about religious moderation. Furthermore, the findings of this study show that religious leaders were successful in mediating religious moderation in order to create a moderate and tolerant community. Religious leaders' functions of monitoring and direction in conflict resolution are able to maintain religious moderation and avert disputes in Indonesia's multicultural society.

Inessential practices: charting a non-normative future for Indian religion jurisprudence

ABSTRACT For religious disputes, Indian courts apply the essential practices doctrine, granting constitutional protection only to practices that are “essential to the religion.” This test soon acquired a normative character, sometimes excluding “superstitious” practices. However, some scholars believe that courts can evaluate essentiality without making normative judgements. We suggest that this distinction between descriptive and normative essentiality tests is deceptive. Instead, we argue that evaluations of essentiality are cryptonormative (i.e. even evaluations that are not facially normative possess a normative character). Recent Supreme Court judgements indicate that it might depart from the essential practices doctrine. If it does, courts should instead evaluate the sincerity of the claimant and the plausibility of the claim and then balance religious freedom against the state interest. However, adjudicative norms, including limitations posed by public interest litigation, impede a non-normative inquiry. We suggest the beginnings of an alternate approach that might help overcome those challenges.