FFA Release Research Articles

Marine sulfated polysaccharide affects the formation mechanism of gelatin emulsion-based oleogels

Protein-polysaccharide delivery systems function as a promising tool to deliver bioactive ingredients aiming to improve their solubility and bioavailability. In this study, gelatin (Gel) and κ-carrageenan (Car) were used to evaluate the characteristics of the Gel-Car emulsion and the emulsion-templated oleogels. Results showed that Car addition significantly reduced the particle size and increased the potential absolute value during emulsion storage, especially for Gel-0.5% Car and Gel-1.0% Car emulsions, indicating Car addition enhanced the emulsion's stability. The emulsions' rheological results indicated that all the emulsions exhibited weak gel-like behavior dominated by elasticity, suggesting Car addition improved the emulsions' shear resistance and viscoelasticity. The emulsions' instability indices were Gel (0.034), Gel-0.1% Car (0.026), Gel-0.5% Car (0.013), and Gel-1.0% Car (0.011), indicating Car addition enhanced the emulsions' stability. For oleogels, Car addition significantly reduced the oil loss rate, delayed the thermal degradation, and improved the viscoelasticity, shear resistance, thixotropic recovery properties, and high-temperature resistance, especially for Gel-1.0% Car oleogel. The stability analysis exhibited that Car addition improved the oleogels' stability, with Gel-0.5% Car oleogel showing the best stability. FFA release was Gel (25.22%), Gel-0.1% Car (26.86%), Gel-0.5% Car (31.38%), and Gel-1.0% Car (39.57%), suggesting Car addition promoted the rapid release of FFA during oleogels digestion. Results above indicated that Gel-Car oleogels exhibited good structural stability and high gel strength, which provide a theoretical basis and new ideas for the preparation of oleogels from protein-marine sulfated polysaccharides using the emulsion template method for food industrial application.

Lactylated Apolipoprotein C-II Induces Immunotherapy Resistance by Promoting Extracellular Lipolysis.

Mortality rates due to lung cancer are high worldwide. Although PD-1 and PD-L1 immune checkpoint inhibitors boost the survival of patients with non-small-cell lung cancer (NSCLC), resistance often arises. The Warburg Effect, which causes lactate build-up and potential lysine-lactylation (Kla), links immune dysfunction to tumor metabolism. The role of non-histone Kla in tumor immune microenvironment and immunotherapy remains to be clarified. Here, global lactylome profiling and metabolomic analyses of samples from patients with NSCLC is conducted. By combining multi-omics analysis with in vitro and in vivo validation, that intracellular lactate promotes extracellular lipolysis through lactyl-APOC2 is revealed. Mechanistically, lactate enhances APOC2 lactylation at K70, stabilizing it and resulting in FFA release, regulatory T cell accumulation, immunotherapy resistance, and metastasis. Moreover, the anti-APOC2K70-lac antibody that sensitized anti-PD-1 therapy in vivo is developed. This findings highlight the potential of anti lactyl-APOC2-K70 approach as a new combination therapy for sensitizing immunotherapeutic responses.

Similar insulin regulation of splanchnic FFA and VLDL-TG in men with nonalcoholic hepatic steatosis and steatohepatitis

This study aimed to determine whether obese men with nonalcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) display differences between those with simple steatosis versus steatohepatitis (NASH) in splanchnic and hepatic FFA and VLDL-triglycerides (VLDL-TG) balances. The study involved 17 obese men with biopsy-proven NAFLD (9 with NASH and 8 with simple steatosis). We used hepatic vein catheterization in combination with [3H]palmitate and [14C]VLDL-TG tracers to measure splanchnic palmitate and VLDL-TG uptake and release rates during basal and hyperinsulinemic conditions. Indocyanine green was used to measure splanchnic plasma flow. Splanchnic palmitate uptake was similar in the two groups and significantly reduced during hyperinsulinemia (NASH: 62 (48–77) versus 38 (18–58) μmol/min; simple steatosis: 62 (46–78) versus 45 (25–65) μmol/min, mean (95% CI), basal versus clamp periods, respectively, P = 0.02 time-effect). Splanchnic palmitate release was also comparable between groups and nonsignificantly diminished during hyperinsulinemia. The percent palmitate delivered to the liver originating from visceral adipose tissue lipolysis was similar and unchanged by hyperinsulinemia. Splanchnic uptake and release of VLDL-TG were similar between groups. Hyperinsulinemia suppressed VLDL-TG release (P <0.05 time-effect) in both groups. Insulin-mediated glucose disposal was similar in the two groups (P = 0.54). Obese men with NASH and simple steatosis have similar splanchnic uptake and release of FFA and VLDL-TG and a similar proportion of FFA from visceral adipose tissue lipolysis delivered to the liver. These results demonstrate that the splanchnic balances of FFA and VLDL-TG do not differ between obese men with NASH and those with simple steatosis.

Bile conjugation and its effect on in vitro lipolysis of emulsions

Bile Salts (BS) are responsible for stimulating lipid digestion in our organism. Gut microbiota are responsible for the deconjugation process of primary conjugated to secondary unconjugated BS. We use two structurally distinct BS and characterize the rate of lipolysis as a compound parameter. A static in-vitro digestion model as well as meta-analysis of literature data has been performed to determine the most influential factors affecting the lipid digestion process. The results demonstrate that lipolysis of emulsions using conjugated BS (NaTC, FFA = 60.0 %, CMC in SIF = 5.58 mM, MSR of linoleic acid = 0.21, rate of adsorption = -0.057 mN/m.s) enhances the release of FFA compared to deconjugated BS (NaDC, FFA = 49.5 %, CMC in SIF = 2.49 mM, MSR of linoleic acid = 0.16 rate of adsorption = -0.064 mN/m.s). These results indicate that conjugation plays an important role in controlling the rate of lipolysis in our organism which can be in turn, tuned by the microflora composition of our gut, ultimately controlling the rate of deconjugation of the BS.

Fish oil encapsulation by genipin-crosslinked complex coacervation between gelatin and different anionic polysaccharides

Herein, a combination approach of bovine bone gelatin (BBG)/anionic polysaccharide (AP) complex coacervation with genipin crosslinking was developed to successfully fabricate fish oil-loaded genipin-crosslinked BBG/AP (fish oil@BBG-genipin-AP) powders. The genipin crosslinking process promoted the formation of larger fish oil@BBG-genipin-AP particles from the BBG/AP particles and fish oil@BBG/AP particles. AP types (gum Arabic, GA; sodium alginate, SA; sodium carboxymethyl cellulose, CMC) and concentrations significantly affected the critical pH to form complex coacervated particles, the powder physicochemical properties, the powder oxidative stability, and the powder in vitro digestion. The fish oil@BBG-genipin-CMC powder at the CMC preparation concentration of 17.5 mg/mL showed the highest loading capacity value (44.3% ± 0.8%), almost the highest encapsulation efficiency value (90.9% ± 0.7%), and the highest encapsulation yield (91.3% ± 2.0%). Due to the environmental pH change, the powders changed to emulsion droplets in the gastric phase and then released free fatty acids in the small intestinal phase. The highest FFA release percentages after the gastrointestinal phase (2 h in the gastric phase and 2 h in the small intestinal phase) were dependent on both AP types and their concentrations (GA: 64.8 ± 2.9%, 62.5 mg/mL; SA: 55.0 ± 3.1%, 15 mg/mL; and CMC: 48.9 ± 1.5%, 12.5 mg/mL). GA at a concentration of 62.5 mg/mL might be the best system to prepare fish oil@gelatin-genipin-anionic polysaccharide powders for fish oil digestion. This work provided useful information to develop oil-encapsulation powders for functional foods and understand the influences of wall materials on the fabrication and properties of powder foods.

Properties of Heat-Assisted pH Shifting and Compounded Chitosan from Insoluble Rice Peptide Precipitate and Its Application in the Curcumin-Loaded Pickering Emulsions.

Curcumin exhibits antioxidant and antitumor properties, but its poor chemical stability limits its application. Insoluble peptide precipitates formed by proteolysis of rice glutelin are usually discarded, resulting in resource waste. The coupled treatment of heat-assisted pH shifting and compounded chitosan (CS) was used to fabricate rice peptide aggregate-chitosan complexes (RPA-CS). The structure, interfacial behavior, emulsion properties, and digestibility of curcumin-loaded RPA-CS Pickering emulsions were investigated. Increasing the CS concentration led to lower interfacial tension but larger particle size, and the three-phase contact angle of the RPA-CS complexes approached 90°. Quartz crystal microbalance with dissipation (QCM-D) indicated that RPA-CS complexes with 6 g·kg-1 of CS (RPA-CS6) had the highest K1 (0.592 × 106 Hz-1) and K4 (0.487 × 106 Hz-1), suggesting that the softest interfacial layers were formed. The solid-liquid balance of RPA-RPA-CS emulsions was lower than 0.5, declaring that they had more elastic behavior than that of RPA emulsions. RPA-RPA-CS4-and RPA-CS6 emulsions had better storage stability, lower FFA release (79.8% and 76.3%, respectively), and higher curcumin bioaccessibility (65.2% and 68.2%, respectively) than RPA emulsions. This study showed that a low-value insoluble rice peptide precipitate could be used as a valuable emulsifier in foods, which may increase the economics and sustainability of the food supply.

Curcumin-loaded oil body emulsions prepared by an ultrasonic and pH-driven method: Fundamental properties, stability, and digestion characteristics

In this study, oil bodies (OBs) loaded with curcumin (Cur) were successfully prepared via an ultrasonic and pH-driven method. Ultrasonic treatment significantly improved the encapsulation efficiency (EE) and loading capacity (LC) of Cur, producing OB particles with small size, uniform distribution, and high ζ-potential absolute values. When the ultrasonic power was 200 W, the EE, LC, and ζ-potential absolute value were the greatest (88.27 %, 0.044 %, and −25.71 mV, respectively), and the OBs possessed the highest yellowness, representing the best treatment result. The confocal laser scanning microscopy (CLSM) and cryo-scanning electron microscopy (cryo-SEM) results was also intuitionally shown that. Moreover, circular dichroism (CD) proved that ultrasonic treatment could unfold the surface protein structure, further enhancing the stability. Therefore, the cream index (CI), peroxide value (POV), and thiobarbituric acid reactive substances (TBARS) were the lowest when the ultrasonic power was 200 W. In this case, the Cur loaded in OBs was well protected against hostile conditions, evidenced by the highest Cur retention rate and the lowest degradation rate constant. Finally, the in vitro gastrointestinal digestion simulation results showed that the ultrasonic treatment effectively increased the release of FFA, bioaccessibility, and stability of Cur, especially when the ultrasonic power was 200 W. This research offers a new OB-based delivery system to stabilize, deliver, and protect Cur for food processing.

Enhanced bioaccessibility of curcumin in Pickering emulsions stabilized by solid lipid particles

To investigate curcumin release behavior of Pickering emulsions (PEs) with controlled crystal polymorphism, solid lipid particles (SLPs) were fabricated using Tween 40 (T40-SLPs) or sodium caseinate (SC-SLPs) at 4 °C or 25 °C. T40-SLPs were characterized as β crystal (100%) at 25 °C, and co-crystallization of Tween 40 (2 % by weight (wt.%) vs. 4 wt%) induced formation of β crystals (24.86% vs. 52.88%) at 4 °C. SC-SLPs solely contained α crystals at 4 °C, and addition of sodium caseinate (2 wt% vs. 4 wt%) reduced content of β crystals (7.55% vs. 2.82%) at 25 °C. The indigestibility of β crystals differentiated interfacial digestive behavior of SLPs. PEs stabilized by SC-SLPs underwent more aggregation and released more curcumin upon exposure to pepsin and mucin. High content of β crystals in SC-SLPs enhanced curcumin bioaccessibility in simulated intestinal digestion, whereas high SC concentrations induced undigested SC self-assembled with β crystals, reducing the curcumin bioaccessibility. PEs stabilized by T40-SLPs showed better-targeted delivery, with higher FFA release and curcumin bioaccessibility during in vitro intestinal digestion. Co-crystallization of T40 enriched β crystals in T40-SLPs but reduced the release and bioaccessibility of curcumin. Hence, surface modification of fat crystals and crystal structure determines bioaccessibility of curcumin in PEs stabilized by SLPs.

Effect of Heat Treatment on the Digestive Characteristics of Different Soybean Oil Body Emulsions.

Soybean oil body (SOB) emulsions were prepared using OBs extracted at pH 11.0 and pH 7.0. The pH 11.0-SOB comprised oleosins, whereas pH 7.0-SOB comprised extrinsic proteins and oleosins. All SOB emulsions were heated at 60-100 °C for 15 min. Heating may lead to the release of extrinsic proteins from the surface of pH 7.0-SOB due to heat-induced denaturation. The total proportion of α-helix and β-sheets gradually decreased from 77 (unheated) to 36.2% (100 °C). During stomach digestion, the extrinsic protein hydrolysis of heated pH 7.0-SOB emulsions was fast between 60 and 80 °C, and it then slowed between 90 and 100 °C; heating inhibited the oleosin hydrolysis of pH 7.0- and 11.0-SOBs. Heat treatment promoted aggregation and coalescence, and it resulted in increased particle sizes for all emulsions. Larger aggregates were found in heated pH 7.0-SOB emulsions, and larger oil droplets were found in heated pH 11.0-SOB emulsions. After intestinal digestion, the droplets of all SOB emulsions gradually dispersed, and particle sizes decreased. Different heating temperatures had lesser effects on particle sizes and microstructures. Lipolysis was affected by the extraction pH and heating. For pH 11.0-SOB emulsions, the FFA release tendency was greatly affected by the heating temperature, and heating to 80 °C resulted in the highest FFA release (74%). However, all pH 7.0-SOB emulsions had similar total FFA releases. In addition, the droplet charges of heated pH 7.0-SOB emulsions were lower than those of unheated pH 7.0-SOB emulsions in both the intestine and stomach phases; however, the charge changes in different pH 11.0-SOB emulsions showed the opposite tendency. This study will offer guidance regarding the application of SOB emulsions in food.

Endocrinology for the hepatologist.

Endocrinology for the hepatologist.

Effects of homogeneous and ultrasonic treatment on casein/phosphatidylcholine complex-emulsions: Stability and bioactivity insights

Casein (CAS), a typical protein emulsifier, has functional properties limited by its chemical structure in practical production applications. This study aimed to combine phosphatidylcholine (PC) and casein to form a stable complex (CAS/PC) and improve its functional properties through physical modification (homogeneous and ultrasonic treatment). To date, few studies have explored the effects of physical modification on the stability and biological activity of CAS/PC. Interface behavior analysis showed that compared to homogeneous treatment, PC addition and ultrasonic treatment could decrease the mean particle size (130.20 ± 3.96 nm) and increase the zeta potential (−40.13 ± 1.12 mV), indicating the emulsion is more stable. The chemical structural analysis of CAS showed that PC addition and ultrasonic treatment promoted changes in its sulfhydryl content and surface hydrophobicity, exposing more free sulfhydryl groups and hydrophobic binding sites, thereby enhancing its solubility and improving the stability of the emulsion. Additionally, storage stability analysis revealed that the incorporation of PC with ultrasonic treatment could improve the root mean square deviation value and radius of gyration value of CAS. These modifications resulted in an increase the binding free energy between CAS and PC (−238.786 kJ/mol) at 50 °C, leading to an improvement in the thermal stability of the system. Furthermore, digestive behavior analysis indicated that PC addition and ultrasonic treatment could increase the total FFA release from 667.44 ± 22.33 μmol to 1250.33 ± 21.56 μmol. In conclusion, the study underscores the effectiveness of PC addition and ultrasonic treatment in enhancing the stability and bioactivity of CAS, offering novel ideas for designing stable and healthy emulsifiers.

Pomelo peel derived nanocellulose as Pickering stabilizers: Fabrication of Pickering emulsions and their potential as sustained-release delivery systems for lycopene

Two kinds of nanocellulose (cellulose nanofibrils (CNFs) and cellulose nanocrystals (CNCs) were synthesized from pomelo peels via a facile approach of TEMPO oxidation and sulfuric acid treatment respectively. The FTIR results illustrated that hemicelluloses and lignin were completely removed from the pomelo peel cellulose substrate. The obtained CNFs and CNCs possessed a uniform morphology and nanoscale particle size. The stability of CNF-based Pickering emulsions was higher than that of emulsions stabilized with CNCs, due to the formation of gel structure induced by the CNFs’ longer fibrils. Increased oil fractions enhanced the viscoelasticity of CNF-based Pickering emulsions. The in vitro digestion results suggested that increased oil fractions decreased the lipolysis degree, as a result of the larger droplet size and higher viscoelasticity of emulsion. The release of lycopene showed a trend similar to that of FFA release, suggesting that higher oil fractions were beneficial for controlling lycopene release during gastrointestinal digestion.

In vitro digestibility of O/W emulsions co-ingested with complex meals: Influence of the food matrix

Oil-in-water (O/W) emulsions are promising delivery systems of lipophilic bioactive compounds into meals composed mainly of water. The colloidal stability of β-carotene-loaded O/W emulsion incorporated into whole milk, oatmeal and whole milk-oatmeal meals. Their subsequent gastric emptying rate, lipid digestibility and β-carotene retention during in vitro gastrointestinal digestion were evaluated using a semi-dynamic gastric model followed by a static small intestinal model. The dispersed particles within the meals, lipid droplets, casein micelles as well as protein and β-glucan aggregates, were responsible for the bigger average particle sizes of both O/W-oatmeal and O/W-whole milk-oatmeal (13.07 ± 1.81 and 7.60 ± 1.21 μm, respectively) compared to the O/W emulsions and O/W-whole milk (0.56 ± 0.03 and 0.44 ± 0.04 μm, respectively). Semi-dynamic in vitro gastric digestion of O/W-whole milk showed lipid droplets embedded into an insoluble protein network emptied earlier than the O/W emulsion. Conversely, O/W-oatmeal and O/W-whole milk-oatmeal had delayed lipid emptying, probably because of the gelation of the β-glucan from oats. During the in vitro small intestinal digestion, the rate of the FFA release was linked to the gastric emptying rate. Indeed, both O/W emulsion and O/W-whole milk presented an exponential increase in the FFA release, whereas the O/W-oatmeal and O/W-whole milk-oatmeal followed a stepwise trend. The β-carotene retention during in vitro gastrointestinal digestion depended on the lipid amount at each digestion time moment. Hence, this work provides valuable insight into the behaviour of O/W emulsions incorporated into meals and during their subsequent in vitro gastrointestinal digestion. • Microstructural changes of dairy protein and oatmeal fibre impact the initial particle size of the O/W-meals. • The physicochemical properties of dairy and oatmeal matrices modulate the lipid emptying rate. • The lipolysis rate during the in vitro small intestinal digestion is linked with the lipid emptying rate. • β-carotene retention in O/W emulsions during the gastrointestinal digestion depended on the amount of lipid at each time moment.

Impact of interfacial layer number and Schiff base cross-linking on the microstructure, rheological properties and digestive lipolysis of plant-derived oil bodies-based oleogels

This study aims at development of plant-derived oil bodies (OBs) based oleogels via electrostatic layer-by-layer deposition technique that contained OB droplets coated by κ-carrageenan and chitosan, and then Schiff base cross-linked by vanillin. The effects of interfacial characteristics and Schiff bases on the formation and properties of OBs-based oleogels were investigated by analyzing microstructure, thermal stability, rheology, texture, protein degradation and lipid digestibility. Flowable to self-standing oleogels were obtained by alternating deposition of biopolymer coatings on OB droplets confirmed from macro-micro structure properties. The results from CLSM and cryo-SEM micrographs showed that OB droplets coated by the compact biopolymer layers were able to retain their structural integrity with uniform morphology and superior oil holding capacity (>99.7%), while vanillin addition fabricated micro-network structures that tightly packed the droplets. The creep-recovery rheology indicated that with an increase in vanillin concentration, oleogels changed from a viscoelastic bilayer interface to strong elastic oleogels due to Schiff bases formation. The resulting oleogels were thermally stable with high G′ (>3.5 × 104 Pa), yield stress (>1000 Pa), hardness (15.03 N), cohesiveness (0.60), and springiness (0.81) values, indicating that compact coating layers and vanillin-induced networks synergistically developed the solid oleogel structures. Furthermore, interfacial characteristics interfered with lipolysis as the FFA release rates of oleogels were considerably reduced with an increasing number of layers around OB droplets. Also, CLSM and SDS-PAGE results suggested that bilayer interface along with vanillin-induced interconnected structures exerted a strong protective effect during gastric process, being able to retain a part of undigested oleogels.

A Review of the Effects of Puerarin on Glucose and Lipid Metabolism in Metabolic Syndrome: Mechanisms and Opportunities

Chronic diseases, including metabolic syndrome related to sugar and lipid metabolic disorders, are the leading causes of premature death around the world. Novel treatment strategies without undesirable effects are urgently needed. As a natural functional ingredient, puerarin is a promising alternative for the treatment of sugar and lipid metabolic disorders. However, the applications of puerarin are limited due to its poor solubility and short half-life. Various drug delivery systems have been investigated to improve the bioavailability of puerarin. This review summarizes the mechanisms involved in the beneficial action of puerarin: suppressing the release of glucose and FFA; regulating the transport of glucose and fatty acids; acting on the PI3K-Akt and AMPK signaling pathways to decrease the synthesis of glucose and fatty acids; acting on the PPAR signaling pathway to promote β-oxidation; and improving insulin secretion and sensitivity. In addition, the preparation technologies used to improve the bioavailability of puerarin are also summarized in this review, in the hope of helping to promote the application of puerarin.

Neddylation-mediated degradation of hnRNPA2B1 contributes to hypertriglyceridemia pancreatitis

Hypertriglyceridemia-induced acute pancreatitis (HTGP) is characterized by the acute and excessive release of FFA produced by pancreatic lipases. However, the underlying mechanisms of this disease remain poorly understood. In this study, we describe the involvement of the RNA binding protein hnRNPA2B1 in the development of HTGP. We used palmitic acid (PA) and AR42J cells to create a model of HTGP in vitro. RT-PCR and western blot analyses revealed a decrease in the level of hnRNPA2B1 protein but not mRNA expression in PA-treated cells. Further analyses revealed that hnRNPA2B1 expression was regulated at the post-translational level by neddylation. Restoration of hnRNPA2B1 expression using the neddylation inhibitor MLN4924 protected AR42J cells from PA-induced inflammatory injury by preventing NF-κB activation and restoring fatty acid oxidation and cell proliferation. Furthermore, RNA immunoprecipitation studies demonstrated that hnRNPA2B1 orchestrates fatty acid oxidation by regulating the expression of the mitochondrial trifunctional protein-α (MTPα). Administration of MLN4924 in vivo restored hnRNPA2B1 protein expression in the pancreas of hyperlipidemic mice and ameliorated HTGP-associated inflammation and pancreatic tissue injury. In conclusion, we show that hnRNPA2B1 has a central regulatory role in preventing HTGP-induced effects on cell metabolism and viability. Furthermore, our findings indicate that pharmacological inhibitors that target neddylation may provide therapeutic benefits to HTGP patients.

Effects of gelation on the stability, tribological properties and time-delayed release profile of double emulsions

Due to the unique multi-chamber structure of the double emulsion (DE), gelation different compartments of double emulsions with different gelling strength offers flexible control over their encapsulation and delivery properties. Herein, the aqueous or oil phase of DE was gelled with alginate or beeswax at different gelling strength, and the effects of gelation on the processing stability, rheological and tribological properties as well as the digestion profile of double emulsions were investigated. Gelation in each phase improved the stability of DE (0,0,0), with the oil or external aqueous phase gelation being more efficient in lifting the encapsulation stability after 14 days’ storage (increased from 67.50 ± 2.47% to 86–90% and 84–90%, respectively). Under processing conditions, the oil phase gelled DE was easily destabilized when subjected to heating treatment, but maintained better stability under freeze-thaw or osmotic pressure treatment compared to the internal and external water phase gelled ones. Gelation also actively regulated the rheological and tribological properties of DE, wherein gelation in internal water phase showed the least impact on the rheological properties, gelation in the external aqueous phase and oil phase exerted more significant influence on the viscosity and the tribological properties of DE, respectively. The external water phase gelled DE manifested the time-delayed digestion profile with only 8.09 ± 0.12% of internal marker release at the end of gastric digestion and the FFA release extent was decreased by 41.66% as compared to the DE (0,0,0). The present study offers a valuable guide for rational design of double emulsions with tailor-made processing stability, oral sensation and digestive characteristics.

Digestive characteristics of oil body extracted from soybean aqueous extract at different pHs

Soybean oil bodies (SOBs), a natural source of pre-emulsified oil, have important potential applications in food industry. In this study, SOBs were extracted from raw soybean milk at pH 5.0, 7.0, 8.0, 9.0 and 11.0. The pH 5.0-, 7.0- and 8.0-SOB contained extrinsic proteins (mainly 7S, 11S and γ-conglycinin) and oleosins (24 kDa, 18 kDa and 16 kDa), and pH 9.0-, 11.0-SOB only had oleosins. Extrinsic protein contents decreased from 83.9% at pH 5.0-SOB to 58.2% at pH 8.0-SOB, zeta potentials increased gradually from –21.7 mV to –14.67 mV and particle sizes decreased from 924 nm to 359 nm with increasing extraction pHs. In stomach digestion, oleosins of pH 5.0-, 7.0-, 8.0-SOB were hydrolyzed more rapidly than extrinsic proteins. All 24 kDa oleosins were hydrolyzed during 5 min, and 18 kDa oleosins were completely hydrolyzed at 30 min for all SOBs. Oleosins were hydrolyzed and produced <15 kDa pepsin-resistant peptides. In addition, some 7S and 11S of pH 5.0-, 7.0-, 8.0-SOB resisted pepsin hydrolysis. For all SOB emulsions, zeta potentials decreased and the droplets sizes increased significantly (P < 0.05) with the extension of gastric digestive time. The oil droplets of all SOB emulsions aggregated, and the coalescence of oil droplets more easily occurred in pH 9.0- and 11.0-SOB emulsions. During the intestinal phase, zeta potentials and diameters of the droplets decreased gradually, and the droplets of SOB emulsions dispersed according to the CLSM. FFA release rates of pH 5.0-, 7.0-, 8.0-SOB emulsions increased rapidly and then increased slowly, however, the release tendency of pH 9.0-, 11.0-SOB emulsions were opposite. Total FFA releases of pH 5.0-, 7.0-, 8.0-, 9.0-, 11.0-SOB emulsions were respectively 52.5%, 70.5%, 59%, 48.8%, 43.3% at 180 min. Therefore, the digestive behaviors of SOB emulsions extracted at different pHs were different. This study will provide guidance for SOB products.

199-LB: Artemisia scoparia Attenuates Glucocorticoid-Induced Lipolysis in Adipocytes

Prescription glucocorticoid use is widespread across developed countries for the treatment of several inflammatory conditions. Elevated glucocorticoids are known to promote lipolysis and often result in metabolic disorders such as insulin resistance and hepatic lipid accumulation. An extract of Artemisia scoparia (SCO) has been shown to reduce lipolysis and promote metabolic health but has not been investigated in the context of glucocorticoid-mediated metabolic disease. We assessed the ability of SCO to modulate glucocorticoid-induced lipolysis in 3T3-L1 adipocytes. Mature adipocytes were pretreated with vehicle (DMSO) , SCO (50 ug/mL) , or rosiglitazone for three days. Cells from each condition were then exposed to either vehicle (ethanol/BSA) , Dexamethasone (synthetic glucocorticoid; 500 nM) , or TNFa (0.75 nM) , in the presence or absence of RU486 (glucocorticoid receptor (GR) antagonist; 250 nM) for 20 hours. Separate experiments were performed to determine the involvement of the GR in SCO’s effects using an siRNA approach. Glycerol and free fatty acids (FFA’s) were measured from the media to evaluate changes in lipolysis. The expression and phosphorylation status of several lipolytic genes and proteins were also assessed via qPCR and western blot, respectively. SCO significantly attenuated dexamethasone-induced glycerol and FFA release, with the combination of SCO and RU486 resulting in the greatest effects. SCO led to significant reductions in the monomeric forms of PDE3B and PDE4D, but greater expression of multimeric complexes were observed. Reduction in GR expression did not interfere with the effects of SCO, suggesting the GR is not required for SCO-mediated attenuation of lipolysis. These observations shed some light on the protective effects of SCO under conditions of elevated glucocorticoids, but additional studies are needed to identify the underlying mechanisms that confer beneficial effects of SCO to combat both diet- and glucocorticoid-induced metabolic dysfunction. Disclosure I. Harvey: None. J. M. Stephens: None. Funding National Center for Complementary and Integrative Health T32 (AT004094)

In vitro digestion of solid-in-oil-in-water emulsions for delivery of CaCO3

The formation of CaCO3 loaded particles based on solid/oil/water (S/O/W) emulsions is a promising method to improve the dispersion stability and digestive properties of CaCO3 in liquid foods. Used CaCO3 as solid phase, soybean oil as O phase, sodium caseinate (NaCas), gelatin (GEL), and sodium caseate-gelatin (NaCas-GEL) as W phase, S/O/W calcium-lipid microspheres were prepared. The intermolecular interactions were examined by Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), Raman spectroscopy, and X-ray diffraction (XRD) analysis. GIT model was used to analyze the particle size, Zeta-potential, and microstructure at different digestion stages by combining the fatty acid release rate, the degree of protein hydrolysis, and the release of free calcium. The FTIR and Raman and XRD results showed that NaCas interacts with GEL to a certain extent, which was helpful for the preparation of stable S/O/W emulsion and could effectively improve the embedding rate of CaCO3. GIT studies showed the addition of GEL weakened the looseness and openness of the aggregation structure in the gastric digestion stage, reduced the FFA release rate to a certain extent, and had a certain inhibitory effect on the digestion of soybean oil in the emulsion. The results showed that the digestion of S/O/W emulsion was the fastest when the W phase was NaCas, and the addition of GEL could significantly reduce the digestion.