Relative Prices Research Articles

Unveiling the Sub-10 GHz Performance of SMA Connectors: A Comparative Analysis

This research review article provides a detailed examination of SMA (SubMiniature version A) connectors, which are integral components in high-frequency electronic systems. Through extensive S-parameter and time-domain reflectometry (TDR) measurements conducted on various SMA connector constructions, this study aims to evaluate the performance and impact of SMA connectors on signal integrity. Results reveal insights into the comparative performance of different SMA connector types mounted on PCB land pads, highlighting their strengths and limitations. Additionally, this paper explores the application of reference plane cut-outs for discontinuity impedance compensation, aiming to enhance the frequency response of SMA connectors. By linking measured performance parameters with relative market prices, this study offers valuable insights into the economic viability of different SMA connector types. The best and worst performing SMA connector measurements reveal an S11 < −10 dB bandwidth of more than 8 GHz and 1.5 GHz and a transition impedance of 46.5 Ω and 21 Ω, respectively. Overall, this research contributes to advancing the understanding and selection of SMA connectors for RF applications in telecommunications, aerospace, medical devices, and beyond.

The effects of fuel subsidies on regional income distribution through smuggling

AbstractFuel subsidies, intended to improve consumer affordability, can result in economic distortions through altered relative prices and negative environmental impacts. Furthermore, these subsidies can lead to unintended consequences, such as fuel smuggling, especially to neighboring countries where significant price differences exist. While previous research has extensively explored the economic dimensions of fuel subsidies, the potential interplay between fuel smuggling and its impact on regional income distribution remains understudied. This study investigates the effects of fuel smuggling, stemming from Iran's long history of significant fuel subsidies, on income distribution across all 30 provinces of the country. We employ a model to specify the demand for fuel smuggling, using fuel prices in neighboring countries and the distance to the nearest border as sources of identification. Subsequently, we estimate the monthly smuggling profit across regions and assess this profit's influence on regional income distribution. Our empirical analysis draws on monthly data on gasoline and diesel sales from 160 fuel distribution districts in Iran, spanning the period from 2005 to 2014. Our findings demonstrate specific cases of smuggling activities that account for an average of 25% of total fuel consumption and generate substantial income in economically disadvantaged border provinces. We discuss the socioeconomic implications of fuel subsidies, with a focus on smuggling activities.

EXAMINING THE VALIDITY OF PURCHASING POWER PARITY: EVIDENCE FROM SRI LANKAN CONTEXT IN RECENT PAST

This research study examined validity of Purchasing Power Parity (PPP) by studying the behaviour of nominal exchange rate and relative price levels between Sri Lanka and United States (US). The theory of PPP has been used to estimate the relationship between relative prices and nominal exchange rate between two countries. Exchange rate between USD/LKR has been taken as dependent variable whereas Relative Price Index between US Price Index and Colombo Consumer Price Index has been taken into consideration as independent variable. The study has been undertaken with the objective of estimating statistically whether Sri Lanka exists Purchasing Power Parity from January 2015 to December 2022. Data that has been collected for this study is monthly time series data from January 2015 to December 2022, which was collected from the data library of the Central Bank of Sri Lanka (CBSL) and data library of International Monetary Fund (IMF) have been used for this study. The results have been estimated using statistical techniques. These include mainly Augmented Dickey Fuller Test for Unit Root Testing, Descriptive Statistics, Ordinary Least Squared (OLS) method and Granger Causality Test. E-views statistical software is used to analyse the PPP model. Econometric Techniques are used to analyse the regression model.

Wage bargaining structure and political budget cycles: A policy game approach

Utilizing a panel dataset from OECD countries, this study unveils new evidence suggesting that the centralization of wage bargaining plays a significant role in mitigating Political Budget Cycles. To explain this empirical finding, the paper introduces a political economy model based on a policy game framework, encompassing three key agents: (i) an opportunistic government that decides on the level of budget deficits with the objective of enhancing its reelection prospects, (ii) workers/voters who decide on their sectoral affiliations, and (iii) unions that independently negotiate wages with firms. In this model, the opportunistic government has an incentive to run a budget deficit to favor the median voter, who is affiliated with non-tradable sectors. The mechanism emerges from the impact of debt-financed public spending on relative prices, and consequently, on relative wages between non-tradable and tradable sectors. Wage centralization mitigates the political incentive of opportunistic governments by attenuating the responsiveness of sectoral wages to sectoral prices, thereby pushing down budget deficits towards a socially more optimal level.

The Influence of Service Quality and Price on Purchasing Decisions at the Azalea Pharmacy, Sukabumi City

This study took place in Sukabumi City at the Azalea Pharmacy. The study's objective is to find out how customers in Sukabumi City's Azalea Pharmacy feel about the store's pricing and service quality in relation to their final purchase choice. The study methodologies employed included both descriptive and associative analysis. One hundred individuals were selected using a non-probability, purposive selection technique to represent the demographic of customers who frequently purchase goods and services at the Azalea Pharmacy in Sukabumi City. You may put the tool through its paces by doing tests for validity, reliability, and classical assumption. After that, we may go on to multiple linear analysis, partial t-test, simultaneous f-test, study of the coefficient of determination, and effects of multiple correlation. According to the results of the correlation analysis, there is a strong correlation between service quality and purchasing decisions (r=0.723, or 72.3%), which falls within the range of 0.600-0.799. Similarly, there is a strong correlation between price and purchasing decisions (r=0.755, or 75.5%), once again falling within the range of 0.600-0.799. The determination analysis reveals that service quality and price significantly impact purchase decisions (Rsquared = 0.623, or 62.3%). Other variables, not included in this study, account for the remaining 37.7%

Exchange Rate and Gold Price: Evidence from Malaysia

This study examines the relationship of exchange rate and gold price in Malaysia. The autoregressive distributed lag (ARDL) approach shows that there is long-run relationship between exchange rate and its determinants, includes gold price. An increase in gold price will lead to a depreciation of the US dollar. There is a negative relationship between exchange rate and gold price. Gold price is found to have a significant impact on exchange rate in the short run. The generalized forecast error variance decompositions demonstrate that changes of gold price influence the forecast error variance of changes of exchange rate. There is a link between the gold market and the exchange rate market.

Unemployment and the direction of technical change

I construct and analyze a growth model in which technical change can increase unemployment. I first analyze the forces that deliver a constant steady state unemployment rate in this setting. Labor-saving technical change increases unemployment, which lowers wages and creates incentives for future investment in labor-using technologies. In the long run, this interaction generates a balanced growth path that is observationally equivalent to that of the standard neoclassical growth model, except that it also incorporates a positive steady state level of unemployment and a falling relative price of investment. I also study the effects of a permanent increase in the ability of R&D to improve labor-saving technologies. In the long run, this change leads to faster growth in output per worker and wages, but it also yields higher unemployment and a lower labor share of income. In the short run, this change exacerbates existing inefficiencies and slows economic growth.

The U.S. Heavy-Duty Liquid Laundry Detergent Market: A Competitive Profile

This is the twentieth paper—and the 21st study--that follows the footsteps of twenty studies that have tried to analyze the competitive profiles of U.S. consumer markets: Men’s Shaving Cream, Beer, Shampoo, Shredded/Grated Cheese, Refrigerated Orange Juice, Men’s Razor-Blades, Women’s Razor-Blades, Toothpaste, Canned Soup, Coffee, Potato Chips, Alkaline AA Battery, Facial Tissue, Toilet Paper, Paper Towel, Disposable Diapers, Sanitary Pads, Automatic-Dishwasher Detergent, Hand-Dishwashing Detergent, and Household Liquid Non-Disinfectant Cleaner. Michael Porter associates high market share with cost leadership strategy, which is based on the idea of competing on a price that is lower than that of the competition.However, customer-perceived quality—not low cost—should be the underpinning of competitive strategy, because it is far more vital to long-term competitive position and profitability than any other factor. So, a superior alternative is to offer better quality vs. the competition.In most consumer markets, a business seeking market share leadership should try to serve the middle class by competing in the mid-price segment; and offering quality better than that of the competition: at a price somewhat higher to signify an image of quality, and to ensure that the strategy is both profitable and sustainable in the long run. The middle class is the socio-economic segment that represents about 40% of households in America.Quality, however, is a complex concept, consumers generally find difficult to understand. So, they often use relative price, and a brand’s reputation, as a symbol of quality.The U.S. Heavy-Duty Liquid Laundry Detergent Market had retail sales of $3,034 million in 2008. We have focused our attention on the 100-128 Oz size because it was by far the most popular, with sales of 1,158 million, constituting 38.2% sales of that market.By far the most dominant player in this market was the mega multi-brand Tide with an overall brand market share of 45.2%. Yet, the market was highly competitive with 39 brands: each with 2008 brand sales over $1 million.Using Hierarchical Cluster Analysis, we tested two hypotheses: (I) That the market leader is likely to compete in the mid-price segment, and that (II) Its unit price is likely to be higher than that of the nearest competition.For 2008—and 2007--the data did not support Hypothesis I, because Tide (100 Oz), the market leader, was a member of the premium segment.Yet, for 2008, the data did support Hypothesis II because, Gain (100 Oz), the runner-up, was a member of the mid-price segment, with a unit price lower than that of Tide (100 Oz), the market leader.For 2007, technically, the runner-up was Purex (100 Oz.) with sales of $169 million in the 100-128 size. However, the real runner-up was Gain which had 100-128 Oz 2007 sales of $153 million—not very far from Purex. But this distinction appears to be random, and not long-term. This is because the sales of Purex dived precipitously in 2008, from $169 million in 2007, to $53 million in 2008, compared to Gain’s 2008 sales of $137 million.So, based on the above argument, we have determined that—for all practical purposes--Gain was the runner-up in 2007 as well. We found that relative price was a strategic variable, as we have hypothesized.We also discovered three strategic groups in this market.A pattern is emerging in price-quality segmentation analysis. In thirteen of twenty-one studies—that exclude Men’s Razor-Blades, Women’s Razor-Blades, Coffee, Toilet Paper, Paper Towels, Disposable Diapers, Sanitary Pads, and Liquid Heavy-Duty Laundry Detergent—the market leader was found to be a member of the mid-price segment, as we have hypothesized.Also, results in ten markets supported Hypothesis II.

Investigating the Nexus between Inward Foreign Direct Investment and Capital Goods Imports: Empirical Evidence from Pakistan

This research found the empirical analysis between capital goods imports and inward foreign direct investment (FDI) of Pakistan by applying the annual time series data from 1975 to 2020. The importance of this area of research arises from its role in the balance of payments by incorporating foreign direct investment in the capital goods import demand model. The autoregressive distributed lag (ARDL) technique is used to estimate the long run relationship between dependent and independent variables. Furthermore, fully modified least square (FMOLS) and Dynamic ordinary least square (DOLS) techniques are also applied to check the robustness of the estimated long-run results. The findings indicate that capital goods import is positively influenced by foreign direction in the case of Pakistan. Moreover, domestic income, and relative price both have theoretically correct signs. On the other hand, the coefficient of export is negatively associated with import demand, which means that capital goods imports are not used in the promotion of export growth in Pakistan. We recommend that an import substitution policy should be encouraged to divert FDI toward the promotion of export growth and hence reduce the trade deficit in Pakistan.

The vacated space of volume/price of the drugs centralized procurement with quantity in secondary and above public hospitals of China

BackgroundIn 2018, the National Centralized Drug Procurement (NCDP) policy has been implemented in 11 provinces, and promoted across the country in 2019. The main feature of the policy is “volume for price”, therefore, it is necessary to measure the price relationship, not only to reduce the price of drugs, reduce the burden of patients' medical costs, but also facilitate pharmaceutical companies to access enough innovation incentives. The aim of this study was to assess the vacated space effect of the drug centralized procurement by national organizations in exchange of price for quantity.MethodsA difference-in-differences (DID) model was employed to analyze the effect of the 4 + 7 pilot drugs centralized purchasing policy on drug sales volume and selected versus clinically substitutable unselected varieties, using observational data from 2018 to 2019. We compared drug procurement data between secondary and above public hospitals in pilot and non-pilot cities throughout China.ResultsThe study showed that the average treatment effect (ATE) of sales in the in-hospital market for the selected supply varieties in centralized purchasing is -0.42, and with a sales volume of 0.49. This indicates a volume-price vacated space of 1.16 ~ 1.17 DDD (defined daily dose)/Yuan, implying that for every 1 defined daily dose (DDD) increase in reported volume, the standardized price decreased by 1.16–1.17 Yuan. The ATE of in-hospital market sales for drugs not selected in centralized procurement shows a decrease of 0.13. This finding highlights the presence of the price linkage effect. The ATE of sales volume is 0.57, indicating a volume-price space of 4.38 ~ 4.39 DDD/Yuan for unselected drugs, approximately 3.75 higher relative to that of the selected ones.ConclusionsThe ratio of the volume-price space of clinically substitutable unselected and selected drugs may serve as direct evidence for evaluating the shift from centralized purchasing of drug varieties to clinically substitutable other ones. To strengthen the volume-based negotiation approach and maximize the effectiveness of centralized purchasing policies, we recommend the strategic implementation of a three-tiered centralized purchasing system, the expansion of drug coverage, and the introduction of relevant constraints and incentives.

PENGARUH TRANSFER PRICING TERHADAP AGRESIVITAS PAJAK DI PERUSAHAAN MULTINASIONAL

Transfer pricing is a pricing method used in transactions between companies within the same group with the aim of optimizing global profits through favorable pricing agreements. This strategy is commonly used by multinational companies to reduce tax liabilities by transferring income to jurisdictions with lower tax rates, thereby potentially increasing tax aggressiveness. The investigation conducted in this study examines the correlation between transfer pricing and tax aggressiveness, focusing on PT Adaro Energy Tbk as a case study, which is a multinational energy company based in Indonesia. The main objective of this investigation is to assess transfer pricing in relation to the tax behavior of multinational companies. Using the Systematic Literature Review (SLR) methodology, this research involves compiling various journals accredited by SINTA. The findings lead to the conclusion that transfer pricing does not have a significant impact on the tax behavior of multinational companies. Consequently, the authors propose the introduction of additional variables to evaluate tax behavior in multinational companies. This discovery emphasizes the need for enhanced regulation and oversight of transfer pricing practices by tax authorities to ensure compliance and equity in the tax system.

Game Theory Applications in Equilibrium Water Pricing of Multiple Regional Sources and Users

China has been facing a contradiction between its water supply and demand for a long time, and it is urgent that it builds a “water-saving society”. Previous research on water pricing mainly focused on the policy level, only considering the supply and demand sides and ignoring the participation of local governments. Due to the inconsistent approval mechanisms, different times of cost formation, and lack of a scientific pricing relationship between multiple water sources and multiple users, with the current water pricing in China, it is difficult to solve the complex problem of water resource allocation. This study aimed to promote the qualitative supply of water and the reuse of reclaimed water, achieve a high-quality and low-cost water supply, and explore the role of water-pricing mechanisms in the regulation of multi-source water supply configurations. The mechanism of regulation is constructed for the complex, multi-source, multi-user water resource system, and a three-party game model is established among local governments, water supply enterprises, and water users. A reasonable pricing system with a rational price relationship is obtained, and Pinghu City in Zhejiang Province is taken as the research area. The prices of the external water supply to residential users, non-resident users, and special users are 4.48 CNY/m3, 6.28 CNY/m3, and 7.12 CNY/m3. The external supply prices for resident users, non-resident users, and special users are 3.81 CNY/m3, 5.25 CNY/m3, and 6.05 CNY/m3. The external supply price for non-resident users is 2.62 CNY/m3 for reclaimed water. The results of the study showed that when the government’s contribution did not exceed the amount that it would have been without the inclusion of recycled water and the annual payment of water users did not exceed their ability to pay, the income of water suppliers increased by 69%. The three balanced objectives of rational water resource configuration by the local government, reasonable profit for the water supply enterprise, and reasonable payment by water users have been achieved. This study provides theoretical and methodological support for the implementation of water pricing for multi-source and multi-user water supplies in water-scarce areas.

The impact of energy prices on industrial investment location: Evidence from global firm level data

This study examines the influence of relative energy prices on the geographical distribution of industrial investments across 41 countries. Employing a gravity model framework to analyse firms’ investment location decisions, we estimate the model using global bilateral investment flows derived from firm-level M&A data. Our findings reveal that a 10% increase in the energy price differential between two countries results in a 3.2% rise in cross-border acquisitions. This effect is most pronounced in energy-intensive industries and transactions targeting emerging economies. Furthermore, policy simulations suggest that the impact of unilateral carbon pricing on cross-border investments is modest.

Early Warning of Systemic Risk in Commodity Markets Based on Transfer Entropy Networks: Evidence from China.

This study aims to employ a causal network model based on transfer entropy for the early warning of systemic risk in commodity markets. We analyzed the dynamic causal relationships of prices for 25 commodities related to China (including futures and spot prices of energy, industrial metals, precious metals, and agricultural products), validating the effect of the causal network structure among commodity markets on systemic risk. Our research results identified commodities and categories playing significant roles, revealing that industry and precious metal markets possess stronger market information transmission capabilities, with price fluctuations impacting a broader range and with greater force on other commodity markets. Under the influence of different types of crisis events, such as economic crises and the Russia-Ukraine conflict, the causal network structure among commodity markets exhibited distinct characteristics. The results of the effect of external shocks to the causal network structure of commodity markets on the entropy of systemic risk suggest that network structure indicators can warn of systemic risk. This article can assist investors and policymakers in managing systemic risk to avoid unexpected losses.

Mean-Reverting Statistical Arbitrage Strategies in Crude Oil Markets

In this paper, we introduce the concept of statistical arbitrage through the definition of a mean-reverting trading strategy that captures persistent anomalies in long-run relationships among assets. We model the statistical arbitrage proceeding in three steps: (1) to identify mispricings in the chosen market, (2) to test mean-reverting statistical arbitrage, and (3) to develop statistical arbitrage trading strategies. We empirically investigate the existence of statistical arbitrage opportunities in crude oil markets. In particular, we focus on long-term pricing relationships between the West Texas Intermediate crude oil futures and a so-called statistical portfolio, composed by other two crude oils, Brent and Dubai. Firstly, the cointegration regression is used to track the persistent pricing equilibrium between the West Texas Intermediate crude oil price and the statistical portfolio value, and to identify mispricings between the two. Secondly, we verify that mispricing dynamics revert back to equilibrium with a predictable behaviour, and we exploit this stylized fact by applying the trading rules commonly used in equity markets to the crude oil market. The trading performance is then measured by three specific profit indicators on out-of-sample data.

Food prices in New Zealand: implications for feeding people better

ABSTRACT There are ongoing concerns about food security, particularly around food affordability and the nutritional quality of diets in New Zealand. While recent food price inflation has sparked conversations about overall affordability, less attention has been directed toward understanding how variations in price increases across different food categories might impact nutrition and health. Using data from Statistics New Zealand on the prices of 85 food items between 2014 and 2023, we estimated 12-month moving averages of relative real prices of sweetened foods vis-à-vis those of five other food categories: dairy, fruits, vegetables, processed meats, and unprocessed meats. Non-parametric Mann-Kendall tests and linear regressions were used to assess the trends in relative food prices. The data show that sweetened foods have become relatively inexpensive over this period. On the premise that both absolute and relative prices are important in determining dietary choices and that these choices impact health, we consider the possible negative implications of these trends. Possible reasons for the recent trends and policies to meet the challenges they pose are discussed.

Modelowanie rozkładu cen skanowanych i indeksów cen za pomocą rozkładów teoretycznych z dwoma, trzema, czterema i pięcioma parametrami

Modelowanie rozkładu cen skanowanych i indeksów cen za pomocą rozkładów teoretycznych z dwoma, trzema, czterema i pięcioma parametrami

Impacts of Regional Integration and Market Liberalization on Bilateral Trade Balances of Selected East African Countries: Potential Implications of the African Continental Free Trade Area

This study examined the effect of free trade on intra-African bilateral trade balances for Kenya, Rwanda, Uganda, and Tanzania to assess the potential implications of the African Continental Free Trade area. The four countries have experienced persistent trade deficits. Whether free trade within Africa can improve the national trade balances, and the drivers of bilateral trade balances are important questions for policy and strategic programmes for the countries to make the most gains from free trade area. The econometric model estimated for each country is an extension of the standard Keynesian model of trade balance to include determinants of bilateral trade flows from the gravity model. Quantitative analysis using panel regression was augmented with qualitative data from interviews with trade policy experts and trade officials from various African countries and focus group discussions with small-scale cross-border traders at the Busia and Namanga border posts in East Africa. Findings show that complete tariff elimination on intra–African trade may not impact the bilateral trade balances of Kenya, Rwanda, and Tanzania but could improve bilateral trade balances for Uganda by 6 percent. Within the free trade areas, Uganda’s bilateral trade balances were higher within the Common Market for Eastern and Southern Africa but lower within the East African Community, than outside these areas. Kenya’s trade balances were lower in the Common Market for Eastern and Southern Africa, than otherwise. On the contrary, no significant difference in trade balances is established for the membership of Kenya, Rwanda, and Tanzania in the East African Community; Rwanda in the Common Market for Eastern and Southern Africa; and Tanzania in the Southern African Development Community, when compared to trade balances with non-members. The importance of macroeconomic factors is demonstrated by the increase in bilateral trade balances with higher relative price levels of trade partners; the reduction with increase in relative production and expenditure capacities of trade partners; and improvements following a depreciation of home currency for Tanzania and Uganda, yet a worsening of trade balances in Kenya. A lack of harmony in documents required for cross-border movements within the free trade areas is reported as counterproductive. All African countries should therefore fully implement protocols and cooperate in the harmonization of trade procedures for the free movement of people and goods across borders. Country policies and trade programmes should pursue increased productivity in the leading intra-African export sectors and diversify exports via foreign direct investment in strategic sectors to substitute imports from outside Africa; reduce costs of production; increase the quality of products; and improve transport infrastructure.

Institutions and Economic Development: Cheong Kee Cheok’s Contribution to Economic Thought

This paper seeks to review the theories and arguments of two leading economic schools that Cheong Kee Cheok dabbled on, initially originating with neoclassical economic thinking to gradually appreciate evolutional economic thinking. In doing so, the paper makes it clear that logic, merit and evidence drove much of Cheong Kee Cheok’s economic thinking, including acknowledging that within the context of the real world where markets (relative prices) often lacked its allocative role when faced with complicated and often opaque circumstances. However, his analyses stayed clear of illogical arguments predicated on the politics of the majority and the politics of the powerful to be transcendental and humanistic in nature. With these credentials as the central pillars of his character, Cheong Kee Cheok gained popularity as an unbiased universal scholar who exchanged ideas freely with people of all walks of life, including with the countless students he mentored.

The U.S. Household Liquid Non-Disinfectant Cleaner Market: A Competitive Profile

This is the nineteenth paper—and twentieth study--that follows the footsteps of nineteen studies that have tried to analyze the competitive profiles of U.S. consumer markets: Men’s Shaving Cream, Beer, Shampoo, Shredded/Grated Cheese, Refrigerated Orange Juice, Men’s Razor-Blades, Women’s Razor-Blades, Toothpaste, Canned Soup, Coffee, Potato Chips, Alkaline AA Battery, Facial Tissue, Toilet Paper, Paper Towel, Disposable Diapers, Sanitary Pads, Automatic-Dishwasher Detergent, and Hand-Dishwashing Detergent. Michael Porter associates high market share with cost leadership strategy, which is based on the idea of competing on a price that is lower than that of the competition.However, customer-perceived quality—not low cost—should be the underpinning of competitive strategy, because it is far more vital to long-term competitive position and profitability than any other factor. So, a superior alternative is to offer better quality vs. the competition.In most consumer markets, a business seeking market share leadership should try to serve the middle class by competing in the mid-price segment; and offering quality better than that of the competition: at a price somewhat higher to signify an image of quality, and to ensure that the strategy is both profitable and sustainable in the long run. The middle class is the socio-economic segment that represents about 40% of households in America.Quality, however, is a complex concept, consumers generally find difficult to understand. So, they often use relative price, and a brand’s reputation, as a symbol of quality.The U.S. Household Liquid Non-Disinfectant Cleaner market had retail sales of $381 million in 2008. It was by far the largest segment of the eleven-segment Household Cleaners market, which had 2008 retail sales of $1,747 million. We have focused our attention on the 24-40 Oz size because it was the most popular, constituting 46% sales of the former market.The Household Liquid Non-Disinfectant Cleaner market was highly competitive, with no dominant player. In 2008 it had 24 brands each with sales over $ 1 million.Using Hierarchical Cluster Analysis, we tested two hypotheses: (I) That the market leader is likely to compete in the mid-price segment, and that (II) Its unit price is likely to be higher than that of the nearest competition.For 2008--and 2007--the data supported both Hypothesis I and II, because the market leader, Formula 409, was a member of the mid-price segment, and its unit price was higher that of the runner-up, Fantastic, also a member of the same segment. We found that relative price was a strategic variable, as we have hypothesized.We also discovered four strategic groups in this market.A pattern is emerging in price-quality segmentation analysis. In thirteen studies—that exclude Men’s Razor-Blades, Women’s Razor-Blades, Coffee, Toilet Paper, Paper Towels, Disposable Diapers, and Sanitary Pads—the market leader was found to be a member of the mid-price segment, as we have hypothesized.Also, results in ten markets supported Hypothesis II.