Differences In Relative Power Research Articles

Strategic principles for co-existence in a multinodal world

In realist international relations theory, world order is assumed to be a vertical structure ordered by relative power, with the hegemon, or the contest of hegemons, at its apex. Power is viewed as the ability to coerce, and security lies in the avoidance of defeat. But the proportional changes in the globalized economy of this century have created a new reality, one in which effective pursuit of one’s own national interest is more complex than compelling or submitting. Differences in relative power and capabilities still matter, and differences in situations create conflicts of interests. But the horizontal dimension of continuing interaction among autonomous actors is more important than the vertical dimension of unilateral imposition. Without hegemony, states have agency, but they face greater uncertainty. The diplomatic calculus of each state is to pursue its national interests, but a major component of this pursuit lies in reducing uncertainty. Strategy for a post-hegemonic multinodal world stresses the complex ecology of action, the importance of relationships, the utility of partnerships, the encouragement of common interests, and the problems of conducting limited conflicts. These are principles of strategic prudence relevant to the global matrix of asymmetric international relationships.

Brainwaves and Emotional Responses to Changes in Red Eye Shadow Brightness and Saturation

Purpose: Investigating how Munsell’s primary color (i.e., red eye shadow) influences human brain and emotional responses to establish foundational data for image formation. Methods: We analyzed the relative power differences in background brainwaves due to variations in five levels of brightness and saturation for each eye both in male and female individuals in their twenties. We used the coefficient of variation for brainwaves for our analysis. In addition, we assessed the preferences for altered red eye shadow and the emotional responses to determine the average preference index. We performed statistical analysis for brainwaves and emotional evaluations using repeated measure analysis of variance in SPSS, followed by post hoc testing with Tukey’s test at a 95% confidence level. Results: The brainwave and emotional responses obtained by presenting red eye shadow brightness and saturation modification-created stimuli revealed that both men and women exhibited beta and gamma wave activation and alpha wave inactivation upon low brightness and high saturation stimuli. Men were more sensitive to brightness stimuli, whereas women displayed higher-level variability in brainwave responses upon saturation changes. Both genders preferred red eye shadows with brightness and saturation levels of 8 and 2, respectively. The perceptual image responses indicated that stimuli with low or high brightness were perceived as modern and subtle or clear and cute, respectively. Medium or high saturation stimuli were perceived as clear and natural or associated with a modern image, respectively, by both genders. Conclusion: This study demonstrated the impact of various color stimuli on the human brain and emotions. We consider the obtained results as foundational data, which could be used in future image consulting or when crafting desired image presentations.

Comparison of power spectra from overnight electroencephalography between patients with Down syndrome and matched control subjects.

Electroencephalograms can capture brain oscillatory activities during sleep as a form of electrophysiological signals. We analysed electroencephalogram recordings from full-night in-laboratory polysomnography from 100 patients with Down syndrome, and 100 age- and sex-matched controls. The ages of patients with Down syndrome spanned 1 month to 31 years (median 4.4 years); 84 were younger than 12 years, and 54 were male. From each electroencephalogram, we extracted relative power in six frequency bands or rhythms (delta, theta, alpha, slow sigma, fast sigma, and beta) from six channels (frontal F3 and F4, central C3 and C4, and occipital O1 and O2) during five sleep stages (N3, N2, N1, R and W)-180 features in all. We examined differences in relative power between Down syndrome and control electroencephalograms for each feature separately. During wake and N1 sleep stages, alpha rhythms (8.0-10.5 Hz) had significantly lower power in patients with Down syndrome than controls. Moreover, the rate of increase in alpha power with age during rapid eye movement sleep was significantly slower in Down syndrome than control subjects. During wake and N1 sleep, delta rhythms (0.25-4.5 Hz) had higher power in patients with Down syndrome than controls. During N2 sleep, slow sigma rhythms (10.5-12.5 Hz) had lower power in patients with DS than controls. These findings extend previous research from routine electroencephalogram studies demonstrating that patients with Down syndrome had reduced circadian amplitude-the difference between wake alpha power and deep sleep delta power was smaller in Down syndrome than control subjects. We envision that these brain oscillatory activities may be used as surrogate markers for clinical trials for patients with Down syndrome.

Association of GAB2 genotype with EEG characteristics and vascular reactivity to hyperventilation in nondemented adults during aging

AbstractBackgroundGAB2 rs2373115 genotype increases the risk of Alzheimer’s (AD) and vascular (VD) diseases (Reiman et al., 2007; Lambert et al., 2013; Kondreddy et al., 2021). EEG reactivity to hyperventilation (HV) depends on hypocapnia‐induced cerebral vasoconstriction, which may be impaired in subjects with preclinical AD and VD. EEG differences in the carriers of GAB2 genotype in nondemented adults remain unknown. The study was aimed to determine the possible effect of GAB2 rs2373115 genotype on resting EEG and EEG reactivity to HV in non‐demented adults during aging.MethodThe enrolled cohort included 151 healthy volunteers, age range 20‐80 years, stratified by GAB2 rs2373115 genotype. Informed written consent was obtained from all participants. All subjects underwent a neurological examination and cognitive screening. The significance of the differences between the EEG in different subgroups was estimated using ANOVA in the general linear model. APOE and sex was included in the analysis as covariates.ResultIn the entire sample the presence of GAB2 C allele was associated with higher alpha2 relative power in resting EEG, with more pronounced differences in the right parietal area.EEG reactivity to HV decreased with aging, and the decrease was more pronounced in the carriers of GAB2 C allele. Under HV the older GAB2 AC&CC carriers as compared with the older GAB2 AA carriers had lower theta power. The HV reactivity of blood pressure and heart rate was decreased in aging to a greater extend in the GAB2 C allele carriers than in the homozygous GAB2 AA individuals.ConclusionThe results show that GAB2 genotype is associated with alpha2 relative power difference in non‐demented adults. Reduced EEG and vascular reactivity to HV in the older GAB2 C allele carriers indicates altered cerebrovascular reactivity to hypocapnia and suggests that vascular factors can mediate GAB2‐related AD susceptibility.The study was supported by Russian Science Foundation (Project N 22‐15‐00448, Project N 19‐75‐30039 genotyping) and the National Institutes of Health, United States (grant R01AG054712 to ER statistical analysis).

An exquisitely sensitive variant-conscious post-silicon Hardware Trojan detection

Hardware Trojans, malicious modifications or additions to circuit elements, are often introduced during outsourced stages of IC manufacturing. Their presence in hardware security platforms became a concern after incidents like the Syrian RADAR failure and the Kill-switch incident. Existing Trojan detection techniques mostly focus on netlist-level identification and overlook process variation challenges in post-silicon ICs. In this work, we introduce a novel golden free and highly sensitive detection method that addresses process variations and various sources of noise. Our approach achieves enhanced detection sensitivity by (i) utilizing an efficient circuit partitioning method that takes into account post-silicon noises, ensuring post-silicon validation through pre-silicon analysis, (ii) implementing a technique to mitigate the impact of systematic and random variations within and between dies, (iii) developing a variation-aware test pattern generation approach that utilizes a bit-flipping technique, leading to low transition net switching and increasing the likelihood of activating Trojans. We evaluate the sensitivity of our detection approach using a custom tool called relative power difference (RPD). To validate our method, we conduct experiments on the ISCAS’89 benchmark and the AES-128 circuit, testing against various Trojans reported in the literature. Our results demonstrate outstanding detection sensitivity for inserted Trojans across different levels of noise.

Ready or Not? Explaining Military Strategic Diversity Among NATO’s New European Allies

ABSTRACT This article explores the defense transformation processes during the two initial decades of the twenty-first century among the 11 former communist states that currently are members of both the European Union (EU) and North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO). The article introduces an analytical framework for systematic comparisons of states’ priorities regarding military strategy. Moreover, the article evaluates the influence of two intervening variables: (i) differences in relative power between middle powers and small states and (ii) differences in geographical exposure. Our findings suggest that differences related to these intervening variables correlate with differences in prioritized strategic ends, means, and ways.

Brain Activation Differences of Six Basic Emotions Between 2D Screen and Virtual Reality Modalities.

To our knowledge, it has been widely studied in Screen-2D modality for the six basic emotions proposed by Professor Paul Ekman, but there are only studies on their positive and negative valence in VR-3D modality. In this study, we will investigate whether the six basic emotions have stronger brain activation states in VR-3D modality than in Screen-2D modality. We designed an emotion-inducing experiment with six basic emotions (happiness, surprise, sadness, fear, anger, and disgust) to record the electroencephalogram (EEG) signals during watching VR-3D and Screen-2D videos. The power spectral density (PSD) was calculated to compare the brain activation differences between VR-3D and Screen-2D modalities during the induction of the six basic emotions. The results of statistical analysis of the relative power differences between VR-3D and Screen-2D modalities for each emotion revealed that both happiness and surprise presented greater differences in the α and γ frequency bands, while sad, fear, disgust and anger all presented greater differences in the α and θ frequency bands, which are mainly observed in the frontal and occipital regions. On the other hand, the six emotions all yielded satisfactory classification accuracy (above 85%) by classification from a subset of power feature of the brain activation states in the same emotion between the two modalities. Overall, there are significant differences in the induction of same discrete emotions in VR-3D and Screen-2D modalities, with greater brain activation in VR-3D modalities. These findings provide a better understanding about the neural activity of discrete emotional tasks assessed in VR environments.

Eyes-closed versus eyes-open differences in spontaneous neural dynamics during development

BackgroundAssessing brain activity during rest has become a widely used approach in developmental neuroscience. Extant literature has measured resting brain activity both during eyes-open and eyes-closed conditions, but the difference between these conditions has not yet been well characterized. Studies, limited to fMRI and EEG, have suggested that eyes-open versus -closed conditions may differentially impact neural activity, especially in visual cortices. MethodsSpontaneous cortical activity was recorded using MEG from 108 typically developing youth (9-15 years-old; 55 female) during separate sessions of eyes-open and eyes-closed rest. MEG source images were computed, and the strength of spontaneous neural activity was estimated in the canonical delta, theta, alpha, beta, and gamma bands, respectively. Power spectral density maps for eyes-open were subtracted from eyes-closed rest, and then submitted to vertex-wise regression models to identify spatially specific differences between conditions and as a function of age and sex. ResultsRelative alpha power was weaker in the eyes-open compared to -closed condition, but otherwise eyes-open was stronger in all frequency bands, with differences concentrated in the occipital cortex. Relative theta power became stronger in the eyes-open compared to the eyes-closed condition with increasing age in frontal cortex. No differences were observed between males and females. ConclusionsThe differences in relative power from eyes-closed to -open conditions are consistent with changes observed in task-based visual sensory responses. Age differences occurred in relatively late developing frontal regions, consistent with canonical attention regions, suggesting that these differences could be reflective of developmental changes in attention processes during puberty. Taken together, resting-state paradigms using eyes-open versus -closed produce distinct results and, in fact, can help pinpoint sensory related brain activity.

Slow Resting State Fluctuations Enhance Neuronal and Behavioral Responses to Looming Sounds

We investigate both experimentally and using a computational model how the power of the electroencephalogram (EEG) recorded in human subjects tracks the presentation of sounds with acoustic intensities that increase exponentially (looming) or remain constant (flat). We focus on the link between this EEG tracking response, behavioral reaction times and the time scale of fluctuations in the resting state, which show considerable inter-subject variability. Looming sounds are shown to generally elicit a sustained power increase in the alpha and beta frequency bands. In contrast, flat sounds only elicit a transient upsurge at frequencies ranging from 7 to 45Hz. Likewise, reaction times (RTs) in an audio-tactile taskat different latencies from sound onset also present significant differences between sound types. RTs decrease with increasing looming intensities, i.e. as the sense of urgency increases, but remain constant with stationary flat intensities. We define the reaction time variation or "gain" during looming sound presentation, and show that higher RT gains are associated with stronger correlations between EEG power responses and sound intensity. Higher RT gain further entails higher relative power differences between loom and flat in the alpha and beta bands. The full-width-at-half-maximum of the autocorrelation function of the eyes-closed resting state EEG also increases with RT gain. The effects are topographically located over the central and frontal electrodes. A computational model reveals that the increase in stimulus-response correlation in subjects with slower resting state fluctuations is expected when EEG power fluctuations at each electrode and in a given band are viewed as simple coupled low-pass filtered noise processes jointly driven by the sound intensity. The model assumes that the strength of stimulus-power coupling is proportional to RT gain in different coupling scenarios, suggesting a mechanism by which slower resting state fluctuations enhance EEG response and shorten reaction times.

Highly uniform and polarization-independent Y-branch with mode filter based on deeply etched silica-on-silicon waveguide

A slight misalignment between an optical fiber and a Y-branch would excite high-order modes and subsequently induce a snaking behavior of the input light, which would dramatically deteriorate the device performance. Here, a highly uniform and polarization-independent Y-branch based on deeply etched silica-on-silicon (SoS) waveguide is proposed, optimized, fabricated, and characterized, in which a mode filter with the quadratic-spline boundary is inserted to suppress the high-order modes. The proposed Y-branch is optimized by using three-dimensional full-vectorial finite difference beam propagation method. The experimental results show that the proposed Y-branch is with an ultra-low nonlinearity over a broad bandwidth from 1250 nm to 1620 nm, a low polarization dependent loss of less than 0.2 dB, and an ultra-low relative power difference of less than 0.04.

Stability of Ince-Gaussian beams in elliptical core few-mode fibers.

A comparative stability analysis of Ince-Gaussian and Hermite-Gaussian modes in elliptical core few-mode fibers is provided to inform the design of spatial division multiplexing systems. The correlation method is used to construct crosstalk matrices that characterize the spatial modes of the fiber. Up to six low-order modes are shown to exhibit about -20 dB crosstalk. The crosstalk performance of each mode set is found to be similar. However, a direct comparison between modes of equal Gouy phase shift, a parameter that ensures identical beam quality, and phase at the detector, demonstrates better relative power transmission for Ince-Gaussian beams. This result is consistent with the natural modes supported by a 100m elliptical core fiber for which a mode ellipticity of ϵ=2 was found to be optimal. The relative power difference is expected to be magnified over longer fiber lengths in favor of Ince-Gaussian modes.

Simulation method of spatial laser field for arbitrary distance optical transmission with carbon nanotube

In this paper, an arbitrary distance optical transmission simulation method for free-space optical communication system is presented. Based on this method, direct point-to-point performance tests between two optical terminals can be realized in the laboratory, and the test results are equivalent to those on-orbit. A theoretical analysis of this method is presented in this paper. Verification experiments showed that there is a good linearity between the incoming power density and output photocurrent of the carbon nanotube (CNT); the relative power difference between the CNT and the charge-coupled device (CCD) camera is 4.75%, which can be ignored compared with the link redundancy.

Conceptualizing environmental governance on the GBM basin

River water sharing is an issue that is dealt by the South Asian neighboring countries for the last four decades. Water management of Ganges–Brahmaputra Meghna (GBM) basin is a controversial issue, which is not yet developed as a regional cooperative mechanism. The GBM river basin countries also represent the projection of relative power differences among its upper stream and lower stream countries. Considering the geopolitical context and hydro-politics of the region, the study examines potential scopes for effective regional governance to GBM’s ecological integrity and to share common river water among China, Bhutan, Nepal, India and Bangladesh. The study uses Rittberger et al. (2006) explanatory model (that explains three conditions—Problem, Cognitive and Hegemonic conditions) in the development of multilateral organizations in GBM region. The study deals with the question—what conditions facilitate GBM based water governance among five main riparian countries (upstream and downstream) in resolving the water scarcity challenges in the region. The paper argues that realization of shortage of water and environmental degradation as an interdependent problem, influence of an inclusive epistemic community (cognitive condition) and a hegemonic leadership (power is willing to accept the relative gain of others states for the absolute gain of itself)—are required to foster water resource governance of the GBM for sustainable development of the region.

Layered clustering multi-fault diagnosis for hydraulic piston pump

Efficient diagnosis is very important for improving reliability and performance of aircraft hydraulic piston pump, and it is one of the key technologies in prognostic and health management system. In practice, due to harsh working environment and heavy working loads, multiple faults of an aircraft hydraulic pump may occur simultaneously after long time operations. However, most existing diagnosis methods can only distinguish pump faults that occur individually. Therefore, new method needs to be developed to realize effective diagnosis of simultaneous multiple faults on aircraft hydraulic pump.In this paper, a new method based on the layered clustering algorithm is proposed to diagnose multiple faults of an aircraft hydraulic pump that occur simultaneously. The intensive failure mechanism analyses of the five main types of faults are carried out, and based on these analyses the optimal combination and layout of diagnostic sensors is attained. The three layered diagnosis reasoning engine is designed according to the faults' risk priority number and the characteristics of different fault feature extraction methods. The most serious failures are first distinguished with the individual signal processing. To the desultory faults, i.e., swash plate eccentricity and incremental clearance increases between piston and slipper, the clustering diagnosis algorithm based on the statistical average relative power difference (ARPD) is proposed. By effectively enhancing the fault features of these two faults, the ARPDs calculated from vibration signals are employed to complete the hypothesis testing. The ARPDs of the different faults follow different probability distributions. Compared with the classical fast Fourier transform-based spectrum diagnosis method, the experimental results demonstrate that the proposed algorithm can diagnose the multiple faults, which occur synchronously, with higher precision and reliability.

The View from Above and Below: The Effects of Power and Interdependence Asymmetries on Conflict Dynamics and Outcomes in Organizations

Deutsch’s theory of conflict resolution is a vital model for understanding the fundamental dynamics of conflict and its constructive resolution. However, the original formulation of the theory assumed equal power and equal degrees of interdependence between the parties in conflict. Although subsequent research has investigated the effects of relative power and interdependence differences on negotiations and conflict, they have yet to be integrated into one model that can account for interactions between the dimensions. This article presents research investigating propositions from a new, integrated model of power, interdependence, and conflict, which extends Deutsch’s theory into situations of asymmetrical power and interdependence. First, two exploratory studies are described that set the foundation for our model. Then, an experiment is presented that induced differences in relative power and interdependence through different versions of a work conflict scenario. The findings supported our model. Different combinations of relative power (high, equal, or low), types of interdependence (cooperative, competitive, or mixed), and degrees of interdependence (high or low) led to significantly different conflict orientations—which affected perceptions, experiences, and responses to conflict. Implications for future research are discussed.

From approach to inhibition: The influence of power on responses to poor performers.

This article examines how relative differences in power affect responses to poor performers in organizations. We predicted that higher power individuals would engage in approach-related behaviors, whereas lower power individuals would be inhibited when responding to poor performers. Results from a scenario study and a field study generally supported this prediction, indicating that power was positively related to training or confronting a poor performer and negatively related to compensating for or rejecting a poor performer. A second scenario study investigated the effect of the interaction of power and emotion on individual responses to poor performers. Results showed that the type of emotion expressed moderated the effect of power on inhibition-related responses. We discuss implications for managing poor performers with relative power differences.

P1-388: Resting-state oscillatory brain dynamics in Alzheimer's disease

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is the most common form of dementia, nevertheless it lacks a definitive antemortem diagnostic test. Altered resting-state oscillatory brain activity may reflect underlying neuropathological changes, and its characterization may lead to new diagnostic possibilities. Due to its superior temporal and spatial resolution compared to EEG, magnetoencephalography (MEG) is a promising technique for this purpose. The present study using MEG and spectral analysis was set up to study differences in relative power of oscillatory brain activity in ten distinct cortical regions. Whole-head 151-channel MEG was recorded in 18 AD patients (mean age 72.1 years, SD 5.6; 7 females; mean MMSE 19.2, range: 13–25) and 18 healthy controls (mean age 69.1, SD 6.8, 11 females; mean MMSE 29, range: 27–30) during a no-task eyes-closed resting state. MEG channels were grouped in ten distinct cerebral regions (central, frontal, occipital, parietal and temporal; both left and right), and relative power was calculated using the Fast Fourier Transformation. The analysis was done both globally and for the specific regions separately, for the delta (0.5–4 Hz), theta (4–8 Hz), alpha1 (8–10 Hz), alpha2 (10–13 Hz), beta (13–30 Hz), and the gamma (30–50 Hz) frequency band. Relative power analysis showed a widespread slowing of oscillatory brain activity, with significant differences in the delta, alpha1, alpha2 and beta frequency bands, particularly in the temporo-parietal regions. Greatest diagnostic accuracy was found in the beta band, especially in the right occipital area (sensitivity 94%, specificity 78%). Correlations of relative power and MMSE scores were generally weak, but with a positive trend in the alfa1 band (R=0.53). Resting-state oscillatory brain activity is different in Alzheimer's disease. Our findings confirm the well-known slowing of brain activity, and show that widespread regional differences between AD and healthy controls can be found using MEG and standard spectral analysis techniques. By analyzing specific cortical regions, this study gives a more detailed topographical view of abnormal oscillatory activity in AD, which may eventually contribute to a more definitive diagnosis in AD.

Juries and the political economy of legal origin

Legal origin has been brought forward as a key influence on modern finance, because common law institutions protect investors better than do civil law institutions, it is claimed. These institutional differences are said, in the legal origin explanation, to have been hard-wired into nations centuries ago. Daniel Klerman and Paul Mahoney challenge the legal origin description of the jury as emerging and achieving prominence in 12th- and 13th-century England while remaining unimportant in France. That contrast has been offered as a key difference between common and civil law, one dependent on the differences in relative power between the English monarch and the French one in the 13th century. But the investigation of the jury here should give pause to those promoting the overall legal origin thesis. The first reason to hesitate is that the jury is not central to protecting outside investors in common law nations. Indeed America's premier corporate court—the Delaware Chancery court—sits without a jury, and the usual view in legal circles is that the jury's absence (and the resulting decision-making by expert judges, not juries) is a strength of the court, not a weakness. The second reason is that Britain did not generally transfer the jury system to its colonies, because to have done so would have conflicted with its colonial goals. That is not a secondary point: political economy issues regularly trump issues like legal origin—colonial policy was just one example of how political goals displace secondary institutions. The third reason is that analysis for the jury differences between civil and common law nations depends on political economy differences centuries ago. But if political economy differences determined institutional differences in the earlier centuries, it is plausible that political economy differences in the intervening centuries would also have affected financial outcomes. Indeed modern political economy differences that lead some nations to support capital markets and others to denigrate them could explain modern financial differences as much as, or more than, 13th century political differences. Journal of Comparative Economics 35 (2) (2007) 294–308.

Socially Responsible Investors and the Microentrepreneur: A Canadian Case

Socially responsible investors buy financial securities with two goals: to make a market-based return, and to make companies act in a more socially responsible way. Most research on socially responsible investment deals with investing in stocks traded on major exchanges. We add the case of loaning small amounts of funds to microentrepreneurs through a discussion of a particular case. The case is that of Calmeadow which, in conjunction with the Royal Bank of Canada, set up a microlending project in rural Nova Scotia (Canada). Using Hirschman’s analysis of “exit” and “voice”, we show that while socially responsible investors may make market-based returns for their investments in stocks traded on major exchanges, they have no effect on corporate behaviour because their action consists of exit, and they are easily replaced by other investors. They attain their first goal but not their second. On the other hand, in the Calmeadow/Royal Bank of Canada case, we see that those who lend money to microenterprises can more easily use voice. The relative power difference between the lender and the microentrepreneur enables the lender to make the microentrepreneur act in a more socially responsible way, although only marginally. But because of the market imperfections existing in this case (the very high transactions costs associated with administering small loans), the lender concluded it could not attain a market rate of return. In this case, then, the lender attained its second goal but not its first.

Perceived Relative Power and its Influence on Negotiations

In an experimental study, we investigate perceived relative power in negotiations and its effect on the distribution of resources and the integrativeness of agreements. We contrast perceived relative power with the objective individual level measure of power often used in past research: the parties’ alternatives to a negotiated agreement. We found that alternatives affected the distribution of outcomes, while perceived relative power and alternatives affected the integrativeness of outcomes. We found that negotiating pairs who perceived a smaller difference in relative power reached agreements of greater integrativeness than pairs who perceived a greater power difference, even after controlling for alternatives and aspirations. We explore the implications of treating power in negotiations as a perceived and relational construct.