Relative Energy Intake Research Articles

No energy compensation at the meal following exercise indietary restrained and unrestrained women

The objective of this investigation was to compare the acute effects of exercise and diet manipulations on energy intake, between dietary restrained and unrestrained females. Comparisons of two studies using an identical 2 x 2 repeated-measures design (level of activity (rest or exercise) and lunch type (high-fat or low-fat)) including thirteen dietary unrestrained and twelve restrained females were performed. Energy expenditure during the rest session was estimated and the energy cost of exercise was measured by indirect calorimetry. Relative energy intake was calculated by subtracting the energy expenditure of the exercise session from the energy intake of the test meal. Post-meal hedonic ratings were completed after lunch. Energy intake and relative energy intake increased during high-fat conditions compared with the low-fat, independently of exercise (P < 0.001). There was a positive relationship between dietary restraint scores and energy intake or relative energy intake in the rest conditions only (r 0.54, P < 0.01). The decrease of relative energy intake between the rest and exercise conditions was higher in restrained than in unrestrained eaters (P < 0.01). These results confirm that a high-fat diet reversed the energy deficit due to exercise. There was no energy compensation in response to an acute bout of exercise during the following meal. In restrained eaters, exercise was more effective in creating an energy deficit than in unrestrained eaters. Exercise may help restrained eaters to maintain control over appetite.

Regulation of energy intake in relation to metabolic state and nutritional status.

Inadequate energy intake can be an important contributor to weight loss in older individuals. This review highlights recent studies on possible causes of negative energy balance in older individuals. Studies of the regulation of food intake suggest that aging is associated with a significant impairment in the regulation of food intake that inhibits appropriate short-term and long-term compensation for imposed alterations in energy intake. The combination of a reduced ability to regulate energy intake, decreased sensory-specific satiety, and disadvantageous social factors such as functional limitations, social isolation and depression, increases the risk of negative energy balance leading to weight loss in older individuals.

Nutritional status and energy expenditure in elderly patients with recent hip fracture during a 2-month follow-up

A 2-month follow-up of nutritional status was performed in forty elderly patients with recent hip fracture. Patients were nutritionally assessed on admission to our rehabilitation unit (day 0), then monthly (day 30, day 60) by measurement of resting energy expenditure (REE), anthropometric, impedance and biological variables. Patients were defined as undernourished (n 13) or normally nourished (n 27) on the basis of mid-arm circumference (MAC) and triceps skinfold thickness (TST) measurements. Seven patients recovered a walking autonomy and were discharged from the hospital before day 30 (group I) whereas thirteen patients were discharged after day 30 (group II); twenty patients remained in the study at day 60 (group III). MAC and TST decreased in normally nourished patients from group III throughout the study whereas they did not change in group II or in undernourished patients from group III. REE values in relation to fat-free mass were increased compared with normal values and were similar in the three groups on day 0; they did not change during the study. Daily energy intake in relation to body weight was higher in group I and increased in group II and in undernourished patients from group III throughout the study. In contrast, it was below the recommended value at day 0 and it did not significantly improve in normally nourished patients from group III. Serum albumin, transthyretin and transferrin levels on day 0 were below reference intervals in the three groups. Albumin levels increased in group III throughout the study. Inflammatory proteins decreased in groups II and III, with C-reactive protein levels returning to normal values in group II by day 30 and in group III at day 60, while orosomucoid levels did not become completely normal over this period. Our findings indicate no improvement in nutritional status in undernourished patients after surgery for recent hip fracture, despite an adequate energy intake. An insufficient spontaneous energy intake for normally nourished patients was associated with a delayed favourable outcome resulting in a prolonged duration of hospitalization. A hypermetabolic state persisted during the 3 months after surgery.

Gender differences in physical and psychological stress responses among college judoists undergoing weight reduction

Gender-related differences in anthropometry, blood biochemistry, psychological parameters, and energy intake during prematch weight reduction were studied in 22 men and 7 women college judoists who lost weight by combining judo training, restricting food and fluid, and sweating. Body weight (BW) decreased significantly by 2.2±1.4 kg in men and 2.0±1.4 kg in women 2 weeks after weight reduction started - not significandy different. Body fat, relative body fat and total energy intake also decreased significandy in both groups 2 weeks after weight reduction started. Lean body mass decreased significandy 2 weeks after weight reduction started only in men. Men had significantly decreased blood lipids, immunoglobulins, complements, hematocrit, white blood cell count, and serum electrolytes, and significant increases in blood uric nitrogen, creatinine, and hemoglobin, while women showed no such changes. The score for vigor in the Profile of Mood States (POMS) decreased in both groups 2 weeks after weight reduction started, but with no statistically gender difference. In women, scores for anxiety in the State-Trait Anxiety Inventory (STAI) and confusion in POMS increased significandy. Although the men and women had the same BW reduction, significant physical stress response was seen only in men, and psychological stress due to weight reduction and mental pressure of an upcoming competition were seen more in women.

Low bone mass density at multiple skeletal sites, including the appendicular skeleton in amenorrheic runners.

The aim of this study was to investigate any difference in bone mass at different sites between female long-distance runners with amenorrhea and those with eumenorrhea. We compared 10 amenorrheic and 10 eumenorrheic athletes to determine whether athletes with amenorrhea have lower BMD in multiple skeletal regions, including weight-bearing lower limbs. The amenorrheic group had experienced menstrual dysfunction ranging from 3 to 43 months. As a further control group, 16 eumenorrheic soccer players were compared with the former two running groups regarding their BMD measurements. The two groups were matched for age, height, and amount of training. Areal bone mineral density (BMD) was measured and was found to be significantly lower in the total body, humerus, spine, lumbar spine, pelvis, femoral neck, trochanter, total femur, femur diaphysis, tibia diaphysis and in the nonweight-bearing head of the femur in the amenorrheic group. Body weight, BMI, fat mass, and body fat percent were significantly lower in the amenorrheic group. The differences in the BMD of the head, humerus, femoral neck, total femur, femur diaphysis, and tibia diaphysis disappeared when adjusted for body weight. Compared with the soccer group, the amenorrheic subjects had significantly lower BMD values at all sites except for the head, Ward's triangle, and femur diaphysis. Blood samples were obtained in the two running groups for analysis of osteocalcin, carboxy terminal telopeptide (ICTP), procollagen I (PICP), and estradiol. There were no significant differences between the groups but there was a strong tendency towards a lower estradiol level and a higher osteocalcin level in the amenorrheic group. A free estradiol index (FE2) was derived as the ratio of estradiol to sex hormone binding globulin (SHBG) and was significantly lower in the amenorrheic group. No difference in their daily intake of total energy, protein, carbohydrates, fiber, calcium, and vitamin D was observed. However, both groups showed a surprisingly low energy intake in relation to their training regimens. Stepwise regression analyses revealed that weight was the best predictor of spine BMD in both groups. Estradiol and FE2 were significant predictors of the BMD of the proximal femur in the eumenorrheic group, but did not predict any BMD site in the amenorrheic group. In conclusion, amenorrhea in athletic women affects trabecular and cortical bone in both axial and appendicular skeleton. However, some of the discrepancy can be explained by a lower body weight. Physical weight-bearing activity does not seem to completely compensate for the side effects of reduced estrogen levels even in weight-bearing bones in the lower extremity and spine.

Cellular, molecular and physiological aspects of leptin: Potential application in animal production

This review encompasses the biochemistry and physiology of the newly discovered adipose hormone, leptin. Leptin appears to fulfill the role of the long sought after "lipostat", which functions to regulate energy intake in relation to body stores in the form of fat. Leptin is a 16 000 Dalton polypeptide which interacts with specific receptors in the hypothalamus to regulate food intake and body fat stores. Leptin receptors exist in several forms, which can be divided into those with small cytoplasmic domains and one with a single long cytoplasmic tail. The latter is thought to mediate most of leptin's effects, acting through the JAK-STAT signal transduction pathway. Several reports have shown direct effects of leptin on tissues with the short form of the leptin receptor. Specific effects of leptin on appetite, energy metabolism and reproduction are reviewed. Leptin may prove to be most useful to animal producers as a stimulant of the reproductive system or as a molecular marker to genetically select livestock for improved reproductive capacities or carcass characteristics, while leptin antagonists may improve metabolic rate and body composition. Key words: Leptin, obese protein, leptin receptor, review, livestock production

Underreporting of energy, protein and potassium intake in relation to body mass index.

Differential underreporting of dietary intake by subgroups of body mass index (BMI) will confound associations between dietary intake and BMI-related diseases. We estimated the magnitude of BMI-related underreporting for energy, protein, and potassium intake for the Dutch cohorts of the European Prospective Investigation into Cancer and Nutrition (EPIC). The study population consisted of 134 Dutch men and women, aged 21-71 years, who participated in a pilot of EPIC. Ratios of reported dietary intakes to biomarkers were used as measures for underreporting. Dietary intake was assessed by a food frequency questionnaire (FFQ) and repeated 24-hour dietary recalls. Biomarker for energy intake was calculated basal metabolic rate; for protein and potassium intake the biomarker was 24-hour urinary nitrogen and potassium excretion, respectively. The measures of underreporting were linearly regressed on BMI (in kg/m2). Significant negative regression coefficients were observed when regressing energy ratio on BMI with adjustment for physical activity (FFQ: beta = -0.04 for men, beta = -0.02 for women; 24-hour recalls: beta = -0.03 for men, beta = -0.04 for women). In men, a significant negative regression coefficient (beta = -0.03) was observed when regressing protein ratio on BMI; for the recalls however only after adjustment for age and education (beta = -0.02). In women, negative regression coefficients were also obtained, but for the FFQ only after exclusion of dieting women (both FFQ and 24-hour recalls: beta = -0.02). According to the recalls, but not the FFQ, a significant negative regression coefficient (beta = -0.02) was observed among women when regressing potassium ratio on BMI. In this Dutch population, BMI-dependent underreporting of 20-25% over the observed range of BMI is present for protein and energy, Further study on BMI-dependent underreporting of dietary intake in EPIC cohorts is warranted.

Is macronutrient composition of dietary intake data affected by underreporting? Results from the EPIC-Potsdam Study. European Prospective Investigation into Cancer and Nutrition.

To investigate whether subjects with low reported relative energy intake differ from those with higher relative energy intake according to characteristics such as obesity, physical activity, and macronutrient composition of the diet. Cross-sectional data from a cohort study employing a semi-quantitative food frequency questionnaire (SFFQ). To determine energy intake relative BMR the ratio of reported energy intake (EI) to BMR was used and categorized by quintiles. East German (Potsdam) cohort of the EPIC study (European Prospective Investigation into Cancer and Nutrition) 2862 women and 2356 men taking part in the EPIC-Potsdam study from January 1st to December 31st 1995. A significant declining trend could be observed for BMI, percentage of body fat, and body weight from the lower to the highest quintile of EI/BMR. BMR was slightly decreasing, whereas physical activity was slightly increasing with quintiles of EI/BMR. Absolute macronutrient intake was directly related to EI/BMR. Percent macronutrient intake indicated lower fat intake, and higher carbohydrate and protein intake in low energy reporters. Energy adjusted macronutrient intake by the residual method showed no dependencies on EI/BMR. Underestimation of energy intake is related to obesity and affects the relation of macronutrients in the reported diet. This implies, that the assumption of adequate ranking of subjects by a SFFQ cannot be maintained. Energy adjusted intake values according to the residual method should be employed in diet-disease risk analysis since they are found to be independent of the methodological influence of underreporting.

Nutrition and cancer.

Evidence from both animal and epidemiologic studies indicate that throughout life excessive energy intake in relation to requirements increases risk of human cancer. Rapid growth rates in childhood lead to earlier age at menarche, which in turn increases risk of breast cancer, and accumulation of body fat in adulthood in related to cancers of the colon, kidney, and endometrium as well as postmenopausal breast cancer. Higher intake of vegetables and fruits has been associated with lower risks of many cancers. The constituents responsible for these apparent protective effects remain uncertain, although evidence supports a contribution of folic acid. Recent evidence suggests that the percentage of energy from fat in the diet is not a major cause of cancers of the breast or colon. Higher intake of meat and dairy products has been associated with greater risk of prostate cancer, which may be related to their saturated fat content. Also, red meat consumption has been associated with risk of colon cancer in numerous studies, but this appears to be unrelated to its fat content. Excessive consumption of alcohol increases risks of upper gastrointestinal tract and even moderate intake appears to increase cancers of the breast and large bowel. Although many details remain to be learned, evidence is strong that remaining physically active and lean throughout life, consuming an abundance of fruits and vegetables, and avoiding high intakes of red meat, foods high in animal fat, and excessive alcohol will substantially reduce risk of human cancer.

Diet-Induced Obesity in Mice Can Be Treated without Energy Restriction Using Exercise And/Or a Low Fat Diet

Diet-induced obesity was treated with a high carbohydrate, low fat diet and/or increased voluntary exercise in mice. All mice had free access to food and water during the two stage experiment. In Stage 1, 20 female mice were fed a high carbohydrate diet and 50 were made obese by consumption of a diet providing 40.8% of energy from fat. At the end of Stage 1, obese mice had significantly greater body fat stores (22.9 ± 0.9 g/100 g body wt) than mice fed the high carbohydrate diet (12.9 ± 1.2) (P < 0.001), yet there was no significant difference in lean body mass. In Stage 2, half of the mice were given activity wheels to increase their voluntary activity and half of the obese mice were switched to a high carbohydrate diet resulting in six groups with treatment designations of obese or lean; exercise or nonexercise, and carbohydrate or fat diets. Body fat was significantly reduced by consumption of the high carbohydrate diet (P < 0.005) and by exercise (P < 0.001), but neither treatment affected lean body mass. Exercising mice consumed significantly more energy than nonexercising mice, yet experienced a decrease in body fat and energy stores. The final fat concentration (g/100 g body wt) of each experimental group was as follows: lean, nonexercising mice fed the carbohydrate diet, 13.6 ± 1.9; lean, exercising mice fed the carbohydrate diet, 7.1 ± 1.5; obese, nonexercising mice fed the fat diet, 23.7 ± 2.9; obese, nonexercising mice fed the carbohydrate diet, 15.1 ± 2.5; obese, exercising mice fed the fat diet, 9.7 ± 0.9; and obese, exercising mice fed the carbohydrate diet, 7.0 ± 1.0. Exercising mice regulated energy intake in relation to physical activity and fat stores. This research suggests that obesity induced by a high fat diet can be treated without energy restriction by exercise and/or high carbohydrate, low fat diets.

Energy intake, dental caries and periodontal disease in 11‐year‐old black children in two regions of Southern Africa: KwaZulu and Namibia

The study examined energy intake in relation to dental caries and periodontal disease in 11-yr-old rural and urban black children in low fluoride areas of KwaZulu and Namibia (0.15 ppm F) and one higher fluoride area of Namibia (1.56 ppm F). Twenty-four hour dietary recalls were conducted by trained interviewers and daily energy intake estimated using the MRC dietary analysis programme. DMFS was recorded according to WHO criteria: periodontal disease was measured using CPITN and SAS was used for statistical analysis. The prevalence of dental caries and periodontal disease (using CPITN), were compared within three energy groupings; < or = 850 kcal/day; > 850, < 1400 kcal/day and > or = 1400 kcal/day. The rural low fluoride Namibian children had the lowest mean energy intake (616 kcal/day), which also was the grouping with highest healthy periodontal prevalence (65%). The urban groups had higher energy intakes than the rural communities. Statistically significant effects on caries prevalence were seen for country and fluoride grouping; for periodontal disease, significant effects were noted for country, fluoride group and environment. Energy intake had no statistically significant effect, so this is not a risk marker for the disease.

Energy intake and physical activity in relation to indexes of body fat: the National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute Growth and Health Study

The relationship between energy intake, physical activity, and body fat was investigated in the baseline visit of 2379 black and white girls aged 9-10 y enrolled in the National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute Growth and Health Study. Three-day food records, three-day physical activity diaries, physical-activity-patterns questionnaires, and an assessment of the number of hours of television and video watched were obtained. Multivariate-regression analyses showed that age, the number of hours of television and video watched, the percent of energy from saturated fatty acids, and the activity-patterns score best explained the variation in body mass index and sum of three skin-fold-thickness measurements for black girls. The best model for white girls included age, the number of hours of television and video watched, and the percent of energy from total fat. These results indicate that body fatness is related to energy intake and expenditure in both black and white girls. Longitudinal studies will help assess the value of these variables in predicting changes in body fat.

Circulating gonadotrophins during a period of restricted energy intake in relation to body condition in heifers.

Beef heifers, 13 months old, were fed to achieve high (7.6 +/- 0.2 units) or low (3.9 +/- 0.1 units) body condition by feeding them one of two diets for 20 weeks. During week 17 of the growth phase, all heifers were ovariectomized. From week 20 to week 27 (restriction phase), all heifers were fed a daily diet containing 0.071 MJ metabolizable energy kg-1 body weight. At weekly intervals throughout the restriction phase, blood samples were collected at 10-min intervals for 11 h to determine the pattern of secretion of luteinizing hormone (LH), the amount of LH released in response to 750 ng (pituitary responsiveness) and 50 micrograms LH-releasing hormone (LHRH, releasable stores) and mean concentrations of follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) in the circulation. Body weight declined during the restriction phase in a similar fashion in heifers with high and low body condition and changes in body weight were unrelated to mean concentrations of LH and FSH and frequency of LH pulses. Amplitude of LH pulses and responsiveness to 750 ng LHRH increased in a linear fashion with weight loss in heifers with low but not in those with high body condition. The amount of LH released in response to 50 micrograms LHRH decreased with increasing weight loss in heifers with high but not with low body condition, indicating that releasable pools of LH declined with increased weight loss in heifers with high body condition.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)

Anorexia and malnutrition in hemodialysis patients.

Malnutrition, which is common in maintenance hemodialysis (HD) patients, is strongly associated with increased morbidity and mortality. Protein requirements in HD patients are increased twice or more compared to those of healthy subjects. Underdialysis leads to anorexia with low protein and energy intake in relation to the requirements, resulting in protein and energy malnutrition, generally accepted recommendations for dialysis prescription regarding dose of dialysis and protein intake are probably inadequately low in relation to the requirements.

Energy and nutrient intakes of disabled children: Do feeding problems make a difference?

We examined the effect of feeding problems and alternative feeding practices on the energy and nutrient intakes of disabled children. Subjects were 221 disabled children aged 1 to 16 years from seven diagnostic groups: a 4-day food record was obtained for 166 children. The children's energy and nutrient intakes were examined in relation to the presence or absence of four feeding problems (gross motor/self-feeding impairment, oral-motor dysfunction, lack of appetite, food aversions) and two alternate feeding practices (prolonged assisted feeding and use of pureed foods). Cross-sectional analyses showed that children with feeding problems or alternative feeding practices had lower energy and nutrient intakes than did children without these factors. The presence of oral-motor dysfunction or prolonged assisted feeding significantly reduced relative energy intake. In general, differences in energy and nutrient intakes between children with and without other feeding problems or practices were small, and few statistically significant differences were found. The findings indicate that some feeding problems may reduce food intake in disabled children, although this effect is lessened by the conscientious efforts of parents. Parents and families of disabled children should receive dietary counseling to prevent deteriorative effects on the physical growth and health of children with long-standing feeding problems.

Diet composition, energy intake, and nutritional status in relation to obesity in men and women

There are dietary factors besides the total energy value of food that can affect adiposity by disrupting the balance between energy intake and expenditure. The purpose of this paper was to examine how perturbation of these dietary factors that control energy balance affects adiposity. There is a substantial amount of evidence suggesting that obesity is not associated with overeating, but with a high dietary fat-to-carbohydrate intake ratio. Physiological adaptations to energy-reduced dieting facilitate both weight regain and make it more difficult to lose weight during subsequent dieting attempts. Since obesity may be better characterized by diet composition than by energy intake, successful weight-loss programs should include diet compositional changes in their regimes.

Diet composition, energy intake, and exercise in relation to body fat in men and women

This study examined the relationships among body fat, diet composition, energy intake, and exercise in adults. Male (n = 107) and female (n = 109) adults aged 18-71 y (36.6 +/- 1.0 y, means +/- SEM) were hydrostatically weighed to determine body fat (5.7-49.0% of total weight). Diet and exercise behaviors were determined by use of a questionnaire. As body fat increased, percent of energy intake derived from fat increased (p less than 0.001) whereas the percent from carbohydrate decreased (p less than 0.001). There was no relationship between energy intake and adiposity although leanness and exercise were related (p less than 0.001). When subgroups of lean and obese subjects were compared, the lean subjects derived approximately 29% of their energy from fat and 53% from carbohydrate vs 35% and 46%, respectively, for the obese subjects. No differences were found between groups for energy intake but the lean individuals exercised more often than did the obese individuals. These data suggest that diet composition may play as important a role in fat deposition as do energy intake and lack of exercise.

Faecal egestion and ammonia excretion in the Antarctic limpet Nacella continna (Strebel, 1908)

Faecal egestion and ammonia excretion were measured in the Antarctic limpet Nacella concinna (Strebel, 1908) at Signy Island during the austral summer of 1986/87. Limpets were sampled from nearby shallow waters and faecal egestion measured over the following 4 days. The mean faecal egestion rate (dry mass) for a limpet of 250 mg dry mass was 0.91 mg · h −1, comparable with rates measured in grazing molluscs from warmer waters. The mass exponent (the slope of the regression of log rate on log mass) was 0.94 for faecal egestion measured as dry mass, and 0.85 for faecal organic content; faecal ash content increased with limpet size. Assuming absorption efficiencies similar to those reported for other grazing gastropods these data indicate typical energy intakes in free-living limpets of 2–3% body mass · day −1 during summer. The exponent relating energy intake (absorption) to limpet dry mass was 0.85. Ammonia excretion was measured on freshly sampled limpets which had been allowed to recover from handling stress for ≈ 12 h. The mean ammonia excretion rate for a limpet of 250 mg dry mass was 162 ng-at N · h −1; the mass exponent was 0.82. Comparison with published data for oxygen consumption suggests an O:N atomic ratio of 30–50. The ammonia production rate of the shallow water population of N. concinna at Signy in summer was estimated to be 210 μmol · m −2 · day −1. Laboratory experiments in UK indicated that urea excretion was important in feeding limpets whereas in starved limpets excretion was almost exclusively ammonia.

Energy intake, energy expenditure, and smoking in relation to body fatness: the Zutphen Study

In 1965 within the Zutphen Study information on several possible determinants of body fatness (eg, energy intake, energy expenditure, alcohol intake, coffee consumption, tea consumption, and smoking) was collected. Univariate analyses showed that for 525 men aged 45-64 y and free from cardiovascular diseases, indicators of body fatness were inversely related to the difference between energy intake and expenditure, physical activity per kilogram body weight, smoking, and coffee consumption. Alcohol intake was directly related to Quetelet index, and tea consumption was not related to indicators of body fatness. Inverse associations between indicators of body fatness and the difference between energy intake and expenditure, physical activity per kilogram body weight, and smoking were confirmed in multivariate analyses. The inverse association between body fatness and the difference between energy intake and expenditure may be due to the underestimation of energy intake by obese subjects. In lean people this association may be explained by a thermogenic effect of smoking.

Energy intake and other determinants of relative weight

The relationships of relative weight to energy intake and to physical activity were studied among 141 females aged 34-59 y. As observed in previous studies Quetelet index (wt/ht2) was inversely related to energy intake (r = -0.11). However, obese women tended to be older (r = 0.16), exercise less (r = -0.30), and drink less alcohol (r = -0.16) than nonobese women. Older women had lower energy intake (r = -0.23) and exercised less (r = -0.12) than younger women. Energy intake and physical activity were positively related (r = 0.23). After adjustment for age, physical activity, alcohol, and smoking, the inverse correlation between relative weight and energy intake was significantly reduced (p = 0.04) from r = -0.11 to r = -0.02. Obese women reported higher intakes of total fat, and relative weight was significantly correlated with intakes of total fat (r = 0.20) and saturated fatty acids (r = 0.16). These data highlight the importance of considering factors that may confound the relationship between energy intake and obesity, and they suggest that fat intake may play a role in obesity that is independent of total energy intake.