Subfamilial Relationships Research Articles

Reassessment of Butterfly Family Relationships Using Independent Genes and Morphology

Evolutionary relationships of true butterflies (Papilionoidea) are addressed using sequence data from nuclear, 28S ribosomal RNA, and the mitochondria), protein-coding gene, ND1. We include a reanalysis of morphological characters from the literature to obtain an independent estimate of phylogeny. Neither morphology nor sequence data produce a single tree, and their results disagree on the relationships of Pieridae, Lycaenidae, and Riodinidae. The total evidence analysis corroborates Kristensen's hypothesis of butterfly family evolution. Lycaenids and riodinids form a clade and are placed as the sister to Nymphalidae. Pieridae is placed as the sister taxon to this apical clade and not as the sister to Papilionidae. Nymphalid subfamily relationships remain enigmatic, particularly the placement of Ithomiinae and Libytheinae.

Evolutionary relationships of multiple alpha satellite subfamilies in the centromeres of human chromosomes 13, 14, and 21

Using Southern and in situ hybridization analyses, we have earlier defined four different subfamilies of alpha satellite DNA (designated pTRA-1, -2, -4, and -7), each of which has a unique higher order structure represented almost identically on human chromosomes 13, 14, and 21. Here we present the complete sequence of single isolates of these four subfamilies, representing approximately 12 kb of sequence information. Sequences of the individual 171-bp monomers that constitute these four subfamilies (and a fifth subfamily, Alpha-R1, that is known to be present on chromosomes 13 and 21) were compared both within and between the different clones. The results indicate that, at the level of their primary sequence, the five alpha subfamilies are characterized by structures that are as unrelated to each other as the different alpha subfamilies from other chromosomes. However, sequence comparisons between monomers of these clones indicate the possibility that pTRA-2, -4, and -1 may have arisen, at least in part, from a common ancestral alphoid sequence. We also provide evidence that exchange of pTRA-1 between nonhomologous centromeres and its homogenization throughout the population, perhaps by unequal exchange mechanisms, could have occurred after the divergence of humans and chimpanzees. The evolution of multiple alphoid subfamilies within a single centromere suggests that unequal exchange mechanisms may be restricted to specific domains. This may in turn contribute to some requirement for subregional pairing of sequences along the length of the centromeres of these chromosomes.

Molecular Systematic Analysis of Butterfly Family and Some Subfamily Relationships (Lepidoptera: Papilionoidea)

Data obtained from ribosomal RNA sequences were used to study phylogenetic relationships within butterflies. In total, 28 taxa representing five commonly recognized papilionoid families and eight nymphalid subfamilies were examined. Within Nymphalidae, Libytheinae was the most basal lineage in three equally parsimonious trees. The largest subfamily, Nymphalinae, was not monophyletic. Vanessa , usually placed in the Nymphalinae, was grouped with the Apaturinae. Remaining nymphaline genera, Agraulis, Heliconius, Speyeria , and Basilarchia , formed a distinct clade. Relationships among Satyrinae, Morphinae, and Brassolinae varied among trees but the three subfamilies were always placed apically in the same clade. The position of Danainae was unstable. It was the sister taxon to the Satyrinae in two trees and to the Apaturinae in the third. At the family level, the Papilionidae formed a basal monophyletic group in four equally parsimonious trees. The Pieridae was consistently placed in the same clade with Nymphalidae and Riodinidae. In contrast to morphological phylogenies that place riodinids within lycaenids, riodinids were in a clade with pierids and nymphalids. Although we excluded several previous proposed phylogenies, molecular data were unable to resolve placements of all controversial groups.

Molecular biology of the 5‐HT1 receptor subfamily

AbstractFour serotonin receptor clones have now been isolated and characterized. They encode the serotonin 5‐HT1A, 5‐HT1C, 5‐HT1D, and 5‐HT2 receptors. The serotonin 5‐HT1C receptor, which was originally classified as a 5‐HT1 receptor, is now seen to be a member of the 5‐HT2 receptor subfamily. Within the current 5‐HT1 receptor subfamily, the two clones that have been described (5‐HT1A and 5‐HT1D) show similarities in amino acid sequence and function but are not as closely related as might have been expected. The human 5‐HT1D receptor clone, when expressed in mouse fibroblast cells, displays pharmacological binding properties in agreement with human cortical membrane preparations. Sumatriptan, a new antimigraine medication, exhibits an apparent dissociation constant of 3.4 nM at this human receptor site. This represents the highest affinity interaction yet identified for this drug, and suggests that significant species differences may exist in the binding of this compound to 5‐HT1D receptors. Similar species differences in ergot drug affinities have been described for the 5‐HT2 receptor. Deduced amino acid sequence homologies between serotonin and other monoamine receptor clones are discussed, leading to a classification scheme for serotonin receptors involving superfamily, family, and subfamily relationships. © 1992 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.

Subfamily relationships and clustering of rabbit C repeats.

C repeats constitute the predominant family of short interspersed repeats (SINEs) in the rabbit genome. Determination of the nucleotide sequence 5' to rabbit zeta-globin genes reveals clusters of C repeats, and analysis of these and other sequenced regions of rabbit chromosomes shows that the C repeats have a strong tendency to insert within or in close proximity to other C repeats. An alignment of 44 members of the C repeat family shows that they are composites of different sequences, including a tRNA-like sequence, a conserved central core, a stretch of repeating CT dinucleotides, and an A-rich tract. Cladograms generated by both parsimony and cluster analysis subdivide the C repeats into at least three distinct subfamilies. Nucleotides at sites diagnostic for subfamilies appear to have changed in a punctuated and progressive manner during evolution, indicating that a limited number of progenitors have given rise to new repeats in waves of dispersion. C repeats that insert into preexisting C repeats belong to subfamilies that are proposed to have been propagated more recently; hence, these data support the model of dispersion in successive waves. The divergence among the oldest group of C repeats is greater than that observed for the analogous Alu repeats in humans, indicating that rabbit C repeats have been propagating longer than human Alu repeats. The improved consensus sequence for these repeats is similar to that of the predominant artiodactyl SINE in both the tRNA-like region and a central region. Because members of different subfamilies cross-hybridize very poorly, hybridization data with representatives of each subfamily provide a new minimal estimate, 234,000, for the copy number of C repeats in the rabbit haploid genome, although it is likely that the actual value is closer to 1 million.

The ant subfamily Pseudomyrmecinae (Hymenoptera: Formicidae): generic revision and relationship to other formicids

AbstractThree genera are recognized in the ant subfamily Pseudomyrmecinae: Myrcidris new genus (monotypic; type species M. epicharis, new species, from Amazonas, Brazil); Pseudomyrmex Lund (c. 150 nominal taxa; southern Nearctic and Neotropical regions); and Tetraponera F. Smith (c. 110 nominal taxa; Palaeotropical region). New generic synonymies are: Pseudomyrmex Lund =Ornatinoda Enzmann =Clavanoda Enzmann =Triangulinoda Enzmann =Apendunculata Enzmann =Latinoda Enzmann; and Tetraponera F. Smith =Pachysima Emery =Viticicola Wheeler =Sima Emery (nee Roger) =Parasima Donisthorpe. Autapomorphies are identified for the subfamily and for its constituent genera, indicating the monophyly of all four taxa. Based on available character‐state information, Myrcidris is most parsimoniously interpreted as a sister‐group to all other Pseudomyrmecinae {Pseudomyrmex+Tetraponera), although there is almost equally strong support for an alternative grouping: Tetraponera + (Myrcidris + Pseudomyrmex). Phylogenetic relationships of the Pseudomyrmecinae and other ant subfamilies within the ‘poneroid complex’ (sensu Taylor, 1978) were assessed by a cladistic analysis of eleven representative ant genera. At the level of subfamily relationships the results suggest that: (1) The Myrmicinae and the Pseudomyrmecinae are sister groups. (2) Within the ‘poneroid complex’ is an unresolved trichotomy composed of: (i) Pseudomyrmecinae + Myrmicinae, (ii) Myrmeciinae, and (iii) Ponerinae + Leptanillinae + (Cerapachyinae + Dorylinae (s.l.)). (3) The Nothomyrmeciinae are a basal lineage within the ‘poneroid complex’, rather than being allied with the ‘formicoid complex’ (Formicinae, Dolichoderinae and Aneuretinae).

Paleobiogeographic relationships of angiosperms from the Cretaceous and early Tertiary of the North American area

The biogeographic affinities of the Cretaceous and early Tertiary angiosperm floras of the North American area (which includes Meso-America, and the Greater Antilles) have been the subject of considerable interest. Although recent treatments of isolated taxa have shown affinities between North American, European, east Asian and Neotropic floras, the relationships have not been quantified. This study compiles the records of fossils whose familial relationships seem secure. This provides a carefully culled, and uniformly presented review of the Cretaceous and Paleogene record from 1950 to 1989 and supplements LaMotte (1950). A subset of these records, which showed compelling evidence of subfamilial relationships, was analyzed to quantify the relationships of the Cretaceous, Paleocene, Eocene and Oligocene floras to other regions. The analysis suggests that for the entire period 24% of the fossil species had affinities with extant taxa from the Northern Hemisphere; 10% with taxa from the Northern Hemisphere that have a few species in South America; 17% with taxa from Eurasia; 3% with taxa with a disjunct Eurasian-South American pattern; 19% with taxa from South America and/or Africa; 8% with taxa from South America and/or Africa that have an important sister group in southeast Asia; 5% with taxa from the Old World; and 13% with taxa having other distribution patterns. Those fossils with affinities to Laurasian taxa are mostly found in the northern and western portions of the North American area. The fossils with affinities to South American and/or African taxa are found in the southern portions of North America, Meso-America, and the Greater Antilles. The taxa with disjunct distributions show both patterns. These patterns suggest that during this time there were wide-spread temperate elements, found throughout Laurasia; Boreotropical flora elements, distributed in North America, Europe and along the Tethys seaway to southeast Asia; and West Gondwana elements which show dispersion from South America across the proto-Caribbean. The paleobotanical data are compatible with current geological, paleontological and biogeographical studies.

Subfamilial Phylogenetic Relationships of the Bromeliaceae: Evidence from Chloroplast DNA Restriction Site Variation

Restriction-site analyses of the chloroplast genomes of members of the Bromeliaceae were conducted to explore subfamilial phylogenetic relationships. Eighteen restriction-site muta- tions and one large (1.8-kb) length mutation were found to be variable at the family and subfamily levels. Cladistic analyses of these data supported the following hypotheses: 1) Bromelioideae and Pitcairnioideae are sister taxa and the latter may be paraphyletic; 2) Tillandsioideae s. str. and Bromelioideae are each monophyletic; 3) Tillandsioideae s. str. is the sister taxon of the remainder of the family; and 4) Glomeropitcairnia is phylogenetically distinct from the remainder of Tilland- sioideae. These analyses suggest that the primarily terrestrial Pitcairnioideae are not basal in the family even though the terrestrial habit apparently is ancestral in Bromeliaceae. Chloroplast DNA data also support the contention that some morphological characters have evolved independently several times in this large, ecologically complex family.

Select palynomorphs from the Middle Eocene Claiborne Formation, Tenn., (U.S.A.)

Four Eocene pollen species, with affinities to Sapotaceae, Loranthaceae, Euphorbiaceae and Sapindaceae, were studied with light and scanning electron microscopy. The use of both techniques increased the understanding of familial and subfamilial relationships of the fossils to extant taxa. Comparison with extant taxa show that Tetracolporopollenites brevis has affinities with taxa in Mimusopsioideae and Madhucoideae; Gothanipollis cockfieldensis has affinities to the monophyletic large flowered Neotropical Loranthaceae; Retitricolporites irregularis with Amanoeae; and Cupanieidites orthoteichus with the Cupania group of Cupanieae. Precise affinities can also lead to a better understanding of the paleoclimatology and paleobiogeography of these fossil species.

Albumin Evolution and Subfamilial Relationships among New World Leaf-Nosed Bats (Family Phyllostomidae)

Subfamilial relationships within the New World leaf-nosed bats, family Phyllostomidae, and intergeneric relationships within the subfamily Phyllostominae are examined with the use of albumin immunology. Phylogenetic relationships indicated by the albumin data show a high level of congruence with those suggested by both anatomical and chromosomal studies. Immunological data indicate that the subfamily Phyllostominae is a paraphyletic unit containing lineages from which other phyllostomid subfamilies have been derived. The albumin data further suggest that diversification within the Phyllostomidae proceeded rather rapidly with three and possibly four extant lineages originating as part of the basal phyllostomid radiation. The phylogenetic associations of currently recognized subfamilies and genera revealed by the immunological data together with chromosomal and morphological data suggest the need for a taxonomic revision of the family Phyllostomidae.

Clustering and subfamily relationships of the Alu family in the human genome.

Thirteen and 10 sequences of the Alu family of repeated DNA elements found within the human thymidine kinase and beta-tubulin genes, respectively, were compared. These genes have approximately five times the expected density of Alu family members. The consensus sequence that could be drawn from these 23 Alu family members would differ slightly from others drawn from random Alu family sequences but only at very heterogeneous positions. The different Alu family members do show different pairwise percentage identities, with approximately 15% (7 of 48 Alu family members analyzed) of them clearly representing a separate subfamily of sequences. This analysis also confirms the species-specific differences between human and the prosimian Galago crassicaudatus Alu family members. These data are consistent with both the origin of these sequences in primates less than 65-70 Myr ago and amplification since that time to their present 500,000 copies. The data do not show any special relationships among densely clustered Alu family members.

The spermathecae of New Zealand Aradidae (Hemiptera: Heteroptera)

Summary Spermathecae and associated structures in 18 species of New Zealand Aradidae representing all 8 subfamilies are described. The bearing of these on the relationships of the subfamilies and on taxonomy is commented on.

Underlying Synapomorphies and Anagenetic Analysis

Evaluations of holomorphological similarities are based on synapomorphies, symplesiomorphies, convergence, and parallelisms as results of parallel selection and of underlying synapomorphies respectively. Only synapomorphies and underlying synapomorphies can show genealogical relationships. Distinctions between parallel selections and underlying synapomorphies are of major phylogenetic importance, while distinctions between different evolutionary histories (eu‐parallelisms and pseudo‐parallelisms) are not. The circumstance when underlying synapomorphies are of special phylogenetic importance has been termed unique inside‐parallelism. Three such unique inside‐parallelisms are found in the female genitalia of the Chironomidae, where they are shown necessary for the understanding of subfamily relationships. — The first minimum criterion for recognizing synapomorphy (Schlee 1971) is corrected to: It should be present within the whole group or clearly secondarily reduced an apomorphic taxa. It should not be present in the same formation in any taxon outside the group which can be regarded as a possible sister group. — The anagenetic component of the evolutionary processes can, following a cladistic analysis, be calculated by means of the adjusted evolution index assigning the different recognizable steps of trends or morphocline number from 1 to 2 and calculating the arithmetic mean of all numbers. Examples from Chaoboridae and Chironomidae support the cladistic diagrams and point out that different stages belong to differing “grades”. Methods of numerical taxonomy may give a finer gradation of anagenetic levels.

Agerasphaera nov. gen., an ‘ Eisenackia’-like dinoflagellate cyst from the thanet sands (paleocene) of southeast England

Agerasphaera margarita nov. gen. et nov. sp. from the Thanet Sands (Paleocene) of southeast England differs from Eisenackia in possessing penitabular membranes rather than raised paraplate areas separated by fossae. A. circumtabulata (Drugg) nov. comb. is nominated as type species. The possible subfamilial relationships of Agerasphaera, Eisenackia and Hystrichokolpoma are discussed and the stratigraphical significance of A. margarita is indicated.

Two new genera and species of Oriental Cicadellidae and remarks on the significance of the male genitalia in leafhopper classification (Honioptera: Cicadelloidea)

SYNOPSISTwo new genera and species of Oriental Cicadellidae are described and tentatively assigned to the subfamily Coelidiinae. The significance of the male genitalia in the determination of subfamily relationships in leaf‐hoppers is discussed.

Evolution in the Proteaceae.

The sources of evidence bearing on the evolution of the Proteaceae are outlined. New cytological data are presented for Embothrium (South American), Beauprea (New Caledonian), and 15 Australian genera which are mostly tropical or subtropical and with morphological characters considered primitive. Beauprea, Buckinghamia, Opisthiolepis, Embothrium, Oreocallis, and Strangea have 2n = 22 and this number is also confirmed for Stenocarpus and Lomatia. Hollandaea, Darlingia, Cardwellia, Carnarvonia, Helicia, Hicksbeachia, Gevuina, Musgravea, and Austromuellera have 2n = 28. In all these cases the chromosomes are comparable in size with those previously described in Grevillea and other genera. Placospermum has 2n = 14 and its chromosomes are many times larger, comparable with those which have been reported in Persoonia. The palaeobotanical evidence is discussed, but does not throw much light on the detailed phylogeny or on the origin of the family, although it suggests that Proteaceae were well developed in the Upper Cretaceous period. From comparative morphology and cytology, together with considerations of distribution, ecology, and other factors, the characters of the ancestral "Proto-Proteaceae" are postulated and an evolutionary scheme of probable relationships of subfamilies, tribes, and genera is put forward, but formal taxonomic rearrangement is deferred for a later publication. Morphological features of the ovule and seed and of floral orientation are discussed. The characters and probable evolutionary trends within each individual group are dealt with in detail and form the basis of a number of proposed rearrangements in the taxonomic system. Placospermum is considered to combine many primitive morphological and cytological features, and it is excluded from both the subfamilies Proteoideae and Grevilleoideae, being thought to represent an early offshoot before the differentiation of those groups. The Proteoideae are probably polyphyletic but the Grevilleoideae represent a more close-knit assemblage. Within the subfamilies certain groups consist of clearly allied genera and appear to be monophyletic. These constitute the majority of the formally recognized tribes, viz. Proteeae (here including Synaphea and Conospermum), Grevilleeae (here restricted to Finschia, Grevillea, and Hakea), Musgraveeae (Musgravea, Austromuellera), and Banksieae. The tribe Embothrieae, here restricted to those genera of the Grevilleoideae with n = 11, shows considerable morphological diversity but is accepted for the present. It is shown that Strangea should be removed from the Grevilleeae and placed in the Embothrieae near Stenocarpus, with which it shares distinctive seed and inflorescence characters. Some isolated genera, viz. Orites (Grevilleoideae) and in particular Franklandia (Proteoideae), show marked specialization in many features and may be given tribal status. The other two tribes recognized, Persoonieae (in the Proteoideae) and Macadamieae (in the Grevilleoideae), consist of genera which, although advanced in certain respects, preserve numerous primitive features. Each of these tribes comprises a number of groups and individual genera which appear to be the result of evolutionary lines that have been independent from a very early stage. The African genus Brabeium, formerly placed in Persoonieae, is shown to be related to Macadamia. There remain certain genera, viz. Dilobeia (Proteoideae) and also Hollandaea, Knightia, Darlingia, Cardwellia, and Carnarvonia (Grevilleoideae), for which no formal grouping is at present suggested. The frequent independence of trends of specialization in individual characters is stressed, and the relationship of zygomorphy and other floral and inflorescence specializations to pollination by higher insects and birds is discussed. The primitive condition of the inflorescence is considered to have been essentially racemose, not a thyrse as recently suggested. Racemose inflorescences are found in many Proteoideae but the apparent raceme in Grevilleoideae is thought to be a reduced panicle.The phytogeography of the family is briefly discussed. There is evidence indicating a tropical origin, and therefore suggestions of southern connections between Australia and Africa are discounted, though they may have occurred between Australia and South America. Stress is placed on the need for an understanding of evolution within the family as a prerequisite to the development of theories on its position among the Angiosperms and on its historical phytogeography.