Related GHG Emissions Research Articles

Developments and Issues in Renewable Ecofuels and Feedstocks

Ecofuels and their feedstock come in three main product classes: electrofuels (e-Fuels), biofuels, and non-biowaste-derived fuels. Ecofuels originate from non-fossil sources, derived from circular raw materials such as non-food organic waste, renewable hydrogen, and captured CO2 through a rapid process of carbon fixation. Proposed regulation drafts under discussion indicate that new fuels would need to reach a substantial degree of climate neutrality. The manufacture of all ecofuels, however, requires energy input to accomplish the conversion of the initial feedstock; their climate neutrality claims stem from the use of renewable electric energy and/or biomasses in the production process, but fossil fuels are still the main primary sources of global (and the EU’s) electric power, and most biofuels consumed in the EU transport mix are still crop-based, with potential conflicts with food and land use. Furthermore, entirely neglecting GHG emissions from renewable energy generation is scientifically debatable, as the impact of the energy (and the related GHG emissions) embedded in the materials used to build renewable energy facilities is small, but not nil. The paper reports ecofuel trends according to the above-mentioned originating technologies and discusses the issues related to their development.

Carbon Footprint of Wheat and Maize: A Greek Case Study

Wheat and maize are two of the most dominant crops of considerable importance in human nutrition. At the same time, agriculture is responsible for about 1/3 of anthropogenic greenhouse gas emissions. The aim of this study is to estimate the carbon footprint of the two aforementioned important crops in the region of Larissa, Greece. Under this context, the emitted CO2eq- per kg of product, the corresponding emissions per hectare and per g of harvested plant protein were estimated. The carbon footprint was measured using the CoolFarm Tool (Cool Farm Alliance). Data were collected through questionnaires and interviews with local farmers. According to the results, the carbon footprint per hectare in maize (2,979 kg CO2eq- ha-1) is significantly higher compared to wheat (1,090 kg CO2eq- ha-1). In contrast, the differences in the footprints per kilogram of product and per g of harvested protein were insignificant. Tillage was found to be the main factor increasing CO2eq- emissions in both crops. In this research work we demonstrated that tillage regimes are crucial for mitigating agricultural related GHG emissions.

Aluminium use in passenger cars poses systemic challenges for recycling and GHG emissions

The demand for automotive aluminium is expected to boom in the coming decades given current trends in the passenger car market, such as electrification, light-weighting, customers’ preference for larger cars (SUVs) and growing global car ownership and population, resulting in a growing challenge for the aluminium sector to curb GHG emissions. We develop a new multilayer dynamic material flow analysis model to analyse the combined effects of those drivers on the automotive aluminium cycle and related GHG emissions. Our results show that (i) aluminium use in passenger cars is likely to quadruple towards 2050 (ii) emissions resulting from aluminium production will be a major part of the carbon footprint of cars (iii) electric vehicles require more wrought aluminium, leading to a surplus of mixed alloys and castings scrap which can only be mitigated through the introduction of alloy sorting technologies and/or an increase in vehicle lifetime (iv) given the expected fast growth in automotive aluminium demand, an overall emission reduction in the aluminium industry would require an even faster penetration of low-carbon technologies in the energy and aluminium production sectors, which may, in turn, increase aluminium demand even further.

A Systemic View of Future Mobility Scenario Impacts on and Their Implications for City Organizational LCA: The Case of Autonomous Driving in Vienna

Autonomous vehicles (AV) are expected to significantly reshape urban mobility. Whether advancements at vehicle level also translate into positive environmental outcomes at city level is still uncertain. We investigate under which conditions a city could enable low emission AV mobility and what challenges are to be expected along the way from an environmental point of view. We build upon our recent environmental performance study of Vienna and combine city organizational life cycle assessment (city-OLCA) with AV transport models from literature for three AV use cases: an own AV, a shared AV, and a shared AV ride service. Most cases lower Vienna’s passenger capacity (by up to 28%) and increase motorized road traffic by a maximum of 49% (own AVs). Traffic relief is observed for shared AVs (−40%) if accompanied by a conventional car ban. This case reduces transport related GHG emissions compared to both Vienna’s current baseline (−60%) and a future electrified transportation system (−4.2%). These transformations have also shifted emission responsibility to the public level. While Vienna’s total GHG emissions could be reduced by 12%, the city’s emission responsibility increases from 25% to 32%. Efficient mass transit, the electrification of the mobility sector and grid decarbonization are key to reducing transport emissions in Vienna. The direction of GHG emission development will be determined by the extent to which these conditions are promoted. AV mobility probably will not be a main contributor.

How urbanization and ecological conditions affect urban diet-linked GHG emissions: New evidence from China

Unprecedented urbanization is dramatically altering habitual food consumption in urban China, and consequently affecting diet-linked greenhouse gas emissions (DGHGEs). Building on the representative resident survey data from the China Health and Nutrition Survey, this study analyzed urban food consumption profiles and related GHG emissions from a life cycle perspective. Moreover, a CATREG (Categorical Regression) model was conducted to identify influencing factors. Results show that urban residents in China generate an average of 2.92 kg CO2e/capita/day, with 1.06 kg of foods consumed. Meat consumption has a dominant role in urban DGHGEs and is the main driver of variation in the DGHGEs. Urbanization level and most demographic factors with regard to household and individual characteristics have significant impacts on urban DGHGEs. However, the resident's awareness of the Chinese Dietary Guideline dose not significantly contribute to promoting low-GHG urban diets. A novel result of this analysis is that local ecological conditions, including geographical climate and resource endowments, have evident effects on urban food consumption and the related GHG emissions, despite the fact that urban areas heavily rely on food resources imported from other regions. Our findings offer knowledge-based inspiration geared to sustainable urban food consumption for both China and other developing countries.

Tourism mobility and climate change - A review of the situation in Austria

This paper reviews and assesses the current state of knowledge on the complex relationship between tourism travel and climate change for the case study of Austria, taking into account developments to date and expected future trends of tourism-related transport and their impacts on greenhouse gas emissions as well as impacts of climate change on tourist travel. Three quarters of tourists travel to and from Austria by car and approximately 10% by plane, contributing significantly to the sector's GHG emissions. Should pre-COVID 19 trends continue, an expansion of further distant home markets and an increase of guests arriving by plane can be expected. Low-carbon technologies, intelligent mobility management and societal trends towards shared mobility solutions can improve the environmental performance of tourist travel but will not suffice to achieve the Paris Agreement's climate targets. Further strong incentives will be necessary to avoid these unsustainable forms of mobility and shift trips to climate-friendly modes of transport and the number and distance of tourism trips can be reduced by focussing marketing on closer rather than long-distance home markets and promotion of longer stays. Local tourism stakeholders in Austria can contribute by awareness-raising campaigns and promoting sustainable mobility solutions at the destinations. Politics need enable this shift by setting framework conditions such as full incorporation of climate costs for all modes of travel. Management implications: To reduce travel related GHG emissions significantly, tourism cannot only rely on technological solutions (electric vehicles) and trends (sharing) but must also initiate a shift from air and private road transport to rail and public transport. This requires measures that offer incentives (fast and direct train and bus connections, climate-friendly local transport, luggage services, attractive all-in packages, etc.), but also a focus on closer rather than long-distance home markets, promotion of longer stays and awareness-raising campaigns for local stakeholders and tourists. The awareness created by the COVID-19 and climate crises can be seen as an opportunity to take these measures. • Tourist travel in Austria contributes significantly to the sector's GHG emissions. • Carbon-intensive travel modes, particularly car and long-distance flights, dominate. • Technological solutions and societal trends can only partially solve the problem. • Strong incentives are needed to shift to climate-friendly modes of travel. • The sector should promote closer source markets and longer stays to reduce travel.

Analysis of the development scenarios and greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions in China’s aluminum industry till 2030

Abstract The rapid economic growth and industrialization in China have induced a large aluminum demand since 1990. Faced with the complex international economic situation recently, China proposed a new national development pattern of “with the big domestic cycle as the main body, the domestic and international double cycles promote each other”. Under the guidance of this kind of macro-control thinking, China’s aluminum industry (CAI) may also need to make corresponding adjustments to future development policies. This paper used dynamic material flow analysis (MFA), regression analysis, and normal life distribution to estimate the domestic consumption, scrap generation, and in-use stock of aluminum from 1990 to 2030 in China. The results show that the amount of domestic consumption, scrap generation, in-use stock has been increasing from 1990 and are expected to reach 54, 19, and 640 Tg in 2030, respectively. Then, the scenario analysis method was adopted to discuss the impact of reducing external circulation (export volume) of aluminum on China’s aluminum production and related GHG emissions. The results of the scenario analysis indicate that effective measures to reduce the export of aluminum products could lead to significant mitigation in China’s primary aluminum production and GHG emissions. Besides, the amount of recycled aluminum will gradually increase in the future, and the proportion of it will reach about 30% by 2030 (22% in 2017) even under the most unfavorable scenario. Relying on the growth of recycled aluminum and the decline in exports of aluminum products, CAI is expected to reach the peak of GHG emissions around 2030, on the premise of meeting the domestic strong aluminum consumption.

65 Sustainability of fish-derived feed inputs: an ecological perspective

Abstract Fishmeals and fish oils (FMFOs) sourced traditionally from directed fisheries and increasingly from seafood processing by-product streams, are important sources of key nutrients in animal diets. While attention is understandably paid to the relative nutritional attributes and prices of FMFOs, little consideration is typically paid to the resource utilization and environmental performance attributes of these products, beyond attending to the management status of source fisheries. This is somewhat surprising, however, given the diversity of species and ecosystems from which FMFOs are derived, their relative abundance, the technologies used in their capture, and energy sources used in their processing. Here, we present results of analyses of the greenhouse gas emission intensity (carbon footprint) and area of marine ecosystem to support the primary productivity required to sustain production of the species-specific biomass required (marine ecological footprint) to yield a tonne of fishmeal or oil for 18 distinct combinations of species, source ecosystem and fishing gear used to produce fishmeal and oil. Analyses of the carbon footprint of meals and oils included direct combustion and related upstream GHG emissions associated with direct fuel inputs to fishing along with emissions from processing-related fuel and electricity inputs. Analyses of the marine ecological footprint of meals and oils accounted for the trophic level of the source species as well as the source ecosystem-specific trophic transfer efficiency and average annual primary productivity. Results indicate that the carbon footprint of FMFOs varied by an order of magnitude while the marine ecological footprint of meals and oils varied by four orders of magnitude amongst the sources assessed. Given these substantial environmental and ecological performance differences between many widely traded FMFOs, there is substantial scope for feed formulators to construct and market low environmental impact feeds while maintaining nutritional and cost profiles.

Green Urban Development: A methodology to calculate site and infrastructure related GHG emissions

The built urban infrastructure which includes the various types of residential and commercial buildings, the parking and public transport network, water and electricity networks, and delivery mechanisms determine the energy use and carbon emissions of our city.At Building level, controlling resultant GHG emissions could be done through measures such as better insulation, more efficient heating and cooling systems, and the installation of rooftops solar photovoltaics. IFC’s EDGE (Excellence in Design for Greater Efficiencies) certification has addressed the need for a mass market tool to identify such opportunities and provides third-party validation of achievement of resource efficiency in buildings. EDGE certification rewards developers who implement strategies to reduce energy and water use in their buildings and embodied energy in materials.At Precinct level, dense, mixed use urban developments that are close to public transit nodes give people convenient, less polluting transportation options while maximising resource use and improving their access to more job opportunities and higher quality of life. To encourage such “Green Urban Developments,” IFC is piloting a new concept to quantify urban strategies such as location, transportation options, achievement of optimum density, overall configuration, planning, and layout to reduce waste all the while ensuring comfort and affordability. The aim is to influence private and public-sector developers to choose “Green Urban Development” design options early in the project planning process.This paper presents a methodology for calculating GHG impacts of the site and horizontal infrastructure options for an Urban Development and explains the benefits and challenges of putting such a concept into practice.

International trade, dietary change, and cardiovascular disease health outcomes: Import tariff reform using an integrated macroeconomic, environmental and health modelling framework for Thailand.

United Nations (UN) member states have, since 2011, worked to address the emerging global NCD crisis, but progress has, so far, been insufficient. Food trade policy is recognised to have the potential to impact certain major diet-related health and environmental outcomes. We study the potential for using import tariff protection as a health and environmental policy instrument. Specifically, we apply a rigorous and consistent Macroeconomic-Environmental-Demographic-health (MED-health) simulation model framework to study fiscal food policy import tariffs and dietary change in Thailand over the future 20 year period 2016-2035. We find that the existing Thai tariff structure, by lowering imports, lowers agricultural Land Use Change (LUC)-related GHG emissions and protects against cholesterol-related cardiovascular disease (CVD). This confirms previous evidence that food trade, measured by import shares of food expenditures and caloric intakes, is correlated with unhealthy eating and adverse health outcomes among importing country populations. A continued drive towards tariff liberalization and economic efficiency in Thailand may therefore come at the expense of reduced health and environmental sustainability of food consumption and production systems. Due to large efficiency losses, the existing tariff structure is, however, not cost-effective as an environmental or health policy instrument. However, additional simulations confirm that stylized 30% food sector import tariffs generally improve nutritional, clinical health, demographic, and environmental indicators across the board. We also find that diet-related health improvements can go hand-in-hand with increased Saturated Fatty Acid (SFA) intakes. Despite limited cost-effectiveness, policy makers from Thailand and abroad, including WHO, would therefore be well advised to consider targeted fiscal food policy tariffs as a potential intervention to maintain combined health and environmental sustainability, and to reconsider the specification of WHO dietary guidelines with their focus on SFA intake (rather than composition of fatty acid intake) targets.

Prospect and potential of biomass power to mitigate climate change: A case study in India

Biomass has often been regarded as a promising renewable energy resource to mitigate climate change. However, what will be the impact on global surface temperature if biomass replace fossil fuel remain unclear. This paper, through a case study in Uttar Pradesh, India address this issue by assessing biomass resource potential to reduce fossil fuel demand and mitigate climate change. Impact of biomass power related GHG emissions on global surface temperature is estimated using the Absolute Global Temperature change Potential (AGTP) climate metric. Uttar Pradesh can produce 71 Mt surplus biomass annually, equivalent to 7298 MW power. Power density of biomass range between 0.10 and 0.25 Wm-2. Significant amount of GHG emissions reduction is possible if biomass replace fossil fuel as a power source in the region. Annual GHG emissions associated with 1 MWh of power derived from coal, natural gas and biomass would cause 4.10 × 10−7, 2.40 × 10−7 and 1.25 × 10−7 mK rise in global surface temperature, 100 years after an initial emission, indicating potential of biomass power to mitigate climate change. Variation in spatio-temporal distribution and low power density could be delimiting factors in large-scale deployment of biomass power.

Inequality across China's Staple Crops in Energy Consumption and Related GHG Emissions

It is significant to investigate the inequalities between energy consumption and related greenhouse gas emissions for sustainable crop production in China. We adopt a hybrid economic input-output and life cycle assessment model, in order to examine the crop-specific embodied energy intensity (EEI) and energy consumption related greenhouse gas intensity (ECR-GHGI) of 29 staple crops from 1990 to 2010. A sensitivity analysis is employed to investigate the relationship between ECR-GHGI and the different components of EEI. We further determine, via a structural path analysis, product-specific energy management priorities for each agricultural production input (API). Our findings indicate the following: (1) The EEI and ECR-GHGI of cash crops are greater than those of grain crops. (2) The EEI and ECR-GHGI of most grain crops increased during the sample period, while the EEI and ECR-GHGI of most cash crops decreased. (3) Energy consumption of synthetic fertilizers is the primary driver of ECR-GHGI across the full range of crops. Agricultural machinery and pesticides are also important factors. (4) Potential energy-savings practices in the API production processes should be taken seriously. (5) Different actions should be implemented to reduce energy consumption levels and ECR-GHG emissions in terms of the production processes of different APIs.

What hinders adoption of the electric bus in Canadian transit? Perspectives of transit providers

There is increasing advocacy for the electrification of mobility choices to reduce transport related GHG emissions. Bus transit has been always considered a promising context for electric powertrain technologies. Current market shares, however, tell a different story with a very small share for electric powertrains. This study identifies factors that hinder the implementation of the electric bus in the public transit context as seen from the perspective of service providers. A grounded theory analysis of 11 in-depth interviews yielded 55 themes/concerns, allocated over four categories, that appear to govern the adoption of the electric bus in Canadian transit. Risk mitigation, operational capabilities, and cost reductions are identified as significantly influencing the perspective of service providers and consequently the potential of the electric bus to penetrate the marketplace. The findings also highlighted that: political support, Canadian-based operational data, standardization, and demonstration projects are essential components that would move transit providers towards electric powertrains. Overall, the study provides a detailed blueprint for a feasible path towards implementation of the electric bus technologies in the urban transit context.

Structural analysis of embodied greenhouse gas emissions from key urban materials: A case study of Xiamen City, China

The indirect greenhouses gas emission (GHG) embodied in the key urban materials purchased outside the city boundary (Scope 3) are often ignored in traditional city GHG studies, mostly concentrating on the emissions occurring inside the city (Scope 1) and emissions by the purchased electricity out of boundary (Scope 2). And there is little research on the structural analysis of the upstream supply chain for Scope 3. However, a comprehensive urban GHG accounting system is the basis for cities to make appropriate mitigation measures. Identifying the main embodied GHG that dominate the emissions in upstream supply chains can help focus attention on the largest emitters and offer insights into where climate mitigation efforts should be directed. Thus, in this study the Economic Input Output – Life Cycle Assessment (EIO-LCA) approach was used to evaluate the embodied GHG emissions from Scope 3 and to explore the related GHG emissions structure in the upstream supply chain based on the final demand for the key urban materials. And food, water, steel, cement, and fuel were selected as the representative urban materials based on the characteristic of Xiamen City. Our results demonstrate that the total embodied GHG emissions were 13,201.31 kt CO2e, very close to the direct GHG emissions from end-use sectors inside Xiamen city. Among the embodied GHG emissions, imported steel, fuels, cement, food, and water accounted for 56, 26, 13, 4, and 1% of the emissions, respectively. The main embodied GHG emissions contributors were found in the upstream supply chain and some related policy implications were presented. Compared to other cities, Xiamen had a relatively low per capita embodied GHG emission, which was 5.24 t CO2e lower than eight U.S. cities.

Volume and GHG emissions of long-distance travelling by Western Europeans

It is generally recognised that long distance travelling accounts for a significant part of the mileage of person travel. However, estimates have been hardly made. The paper estimates volume and GHG emissions of long-distance travel by Western Europeans. The analysis is predominantly based on data of the DATELINE project, the only EU-wide survey on long-distance travelling, conducted in 2001 and 2002. Some studies demonstrate that DATELINE suffers from serious underreporting of journeys. We analysed the causes for underreporting and developed expansion factors that correct for that. These gave the opportunity to estimate long-distance travel volumes and related GHG emissions in 2001/2002. Next an update to 2013 is made using statistics on the development of tourist travel and patronage of long-distance modes. Defining long distance ⩾100km crow-fly, the estimates per capita in the Western European countries in 2013 are 7.5 journeys (defined as round-trips), 8600km, and 1300kg greenhouse gasses. The estimated total GHG emissions of long-distance travelling is 520 megaton. In the Netherlands and Flanders, countries where data on short-distance travelling were available, long-distance travelling accounts for 45% of the mileage and nearly 50% of the GHG emissions of all person transport. Long-distance travelling is growing and is expected to continue to grow, particularly by air. The GHG emissions are expected to grow as well, though to a smaller extent. Because short-distance travelling is stagnating, the shares of long distance travelling in both mileage and GHG emissions are likely to increase.

A study aimed at assessing the potential impact of vehicle electrification on grid infrastructure and road-traffic green house emissions

In the current paper a thorough analysis is conducted to assess, on one hand, the impact of vehicle electrification on electric grids and their related infrastructures, and, on the other, its potential contribution to GHG emission reduction. Such an analysis covers the timeframe 2011–2050, thus allowing to assess if the environment friendliness of both PHEV and BEV will be enough contributing, particularly towards the fulfillment of the objectives recently established both by official agreements among governments and research consortia (e.g. the International Energy Agency) as well. The expected time evolution of both PHEV and BEV private car fleets is modeled through a simplified market penetration model, along with the associated contribution in terms of well to tank and tank to wheel GHG emissions, thus providing the needed input data to the scenario analysis. Particularly, a longitudinal vehicle model is adopted to accurately estimate electric vehicle energy consumptions and related GHG emissions as a function of powertrain configuration, dimensions and mass.The analysis was run on several countries, thus providing useful outcomes to assess the suitability of given energy mix to fully exploit vehicle electrification. Such indications will therefore be useful to determine to which extent progressive decarbonization of current grids is required to meet the GHG reduction target by 2050.

Energy consumption and GHG emission scenarios of a university campus in Mexico

This study estimates energy consumption and related GHG emissions for the buildings and facilities of the main university campus at the National Autonomous University of Mexico (UNAM). The campus has a built area of 1.3km2. Based on the strategic plan of growth, a scenario analysis for 2020 was also developed estimating baseline and mitigation scenarios that include energy efficiency technologies and solar water heating. To estimate energy consumption, a representative sample of buildings and facilities by category was selected in order to develop level I and when possible level II energy audits. The study was complemented with results of level III energy audits performed in previous studies for some buildings. The bottom-up results from energy audits were compared to the electricity bill for the whole campus. We found that lighting represents 28% of total energy use, followed by special research equipment 17%, refrigeration 14%, and water heating that includes the Olympic swimming pool 9%. If energy efficiency technologies are applied for retrofitting and considered for new buildings in lighting, refrigeration, air conditioning; and a hybrid system (solar–electric–LPG) is used for water heating, energy consumption could be 7.5% less than in 2011 and CO2 emissions 11.3% less than in 2011.

Carbon footprint assessment of Western Australian LNG production and export to the Chinese market

In reviewing the carbon footprint of the production and transportation of 1m3 of LNG to China, this life cycle assessment (LCA) has confirmed that the production and liquefaction stage generates the most GHG emissions (45.4%) followed by the natural gas exploration and separation stage (39%) and the exportation and transportation stage (15.7%). The utilisation of wind power energy as a replacement of gas fired electricity generation could possibly reduce the ‘energy consumption’ related GHG emissions of LNG production by some 36–51%. Similarly, the utilisation of carbon capture and storage to sequester the GHG emitted during electricity production could potentially reduce ‘energy consumption’ related GHG emissions by 33–45%. This LCA will assist exporters, manufacturers, and suppliers in the LNG supply chain with enhanced environmental supply chain management and the management of any future carbon trading pressures on LNG markets.

An integrated mathematical tool aimed at developing highly performing and cost-effective fuel cell hybrid vehicles

An integrated mathematical tool is presented to simultaneously design powertrain and control strategies for PEM fuel cell hybrid vehicles. Such an activity is motivated by the positive impact of car electrification on transportation related GHG emissions, and by the potential of hydrogen as an intensive energy carrier to avoid heavy battery packs, as required for pure electric cars. Moreover, the availability of reliable and comprehensive mathematical tools is recognized as a key to develop cost effective and highly performing innovative powertrains.A database of hybridizing devices' costs and weights is developed and exploited in conjunction with a weight model to size the powertrain as a function of degree of hybridization. In parallel, a versatile heuristic control strategy is proposed to easily adapt control rules to different powertrains. Then, both the weight model and the heuristic control strategy are embedded into an optimization procedure to determine the most convenient PEM fuel cell hybrid vehicle configuration.The methodology is tested for a fuel cell hybrid shuttle, whose hydrogen feeding is guaranteed by a photovoltaic on-site generation system. Such a case study not only is suitable to assess the proposed optimization procedure, but also serves at indicating the most promising short-term applications of fuel cell hybrid vehicles.

Mitigating energy-related GHG emissions through renewable energy

An inventory of greenhouse gas emissions from various economic sectors in Lebanon was conducted following the guidelines set by the World Meteorological Organization and United Nations Environment Programme Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. The inventory indicated that the energy sector is the major contributor (74%) to greenhouse gas emissions. This paper describes the inventory of energy related GHG emissions and assesses mitigation options to reduce emissions from electricity generation with emphasis on the usage of renewable energy including biomass, hydropower, solar and wind resources. Policy options for overcoming barriers hindering the exploitation of renewable energy resources are discussed in the context of country-specific characteristics.