Reintroduction Sites Research Articles

Diet selection by the brush-tailed rock-wallaby (Petrogale penicillata) in East Gippsland, Victoria

Resource selection by animals is assumed to have fitness benefits so quantifying resource selection can help determine suitable conditions for species persistence and be used to inform management plans. We studied diet selection by the ‘Critically Endangered’ Victorian brush-tailed rock-wallaby (Petrogale penicillata) by comparing proportions of plant functional groups consumed with their availability in the three remaining rock-wallaby colonies in East Gippsland, Victoria. We estimated availability using an adaptation of the point transect method, identifying 63 plant functional groups and their abundance within the foraging range. Using microhistological analysis of faecal pellets we determined diet composition at the resolution of plant functional groups: ferns, forbs, monocots, shrubs and trees. At all sites the plant functional groups constituting most of the diet were forbs, monocots and shrubs. However, diet composition and selection was different among the sites, particularly with regards to the consumption and selection of monocots, which appeared to be favoured at two sites, and of shrubs, which were favoured at the third site. Overall, the diet composition suggested that brush-tailed rock-wallabies consume a diverse range of food types. The results can be used to improve current management by increasing the availability of preferred food types, perhaps through targeted fire regimes, and to guide the selection of reintroduction sites.

Applying species distribution modelling to identify areas of high conservation value for endangered species: A case study using Margaritifera margaritifera (L.)

The development and implementation of a population supplementation and restoration plan for any endangered species should involve an understanding of the species’ habitat requirements prior to the release of any captive bred individuals. The freshwater pearl mussel, Margaritifera margaritifera, has undergone dramatic declines over the last century and is now globally endangered. In Northern Ireland, the release of captive bred individuals is being used to support wild populations and repatriate the species in areas where it once existed. We employed a combination of maximum entropy modelling (MAXENT) and Generalized Linear Mixed Models (GLMM) to identify ecological parameters necessary to support wild populations using GIS-based landscape scale and ground-truthed habitat scale environmental parameters. The GIS-based landscape scale model suggested that mussel occurrence was associated with altitude and soil characteristics including the carbon, clay, sand, and silt content. Notably, mussels were associated with a relatively narrow band of variance indicating that M. margaritifera has a highly specific landscape niche. The ground-truthed habitat scale model suggested that mussel occurrence was associated with stable consolidated substrates, the extent of bankside trees, presence of indicative macrophyte species and fast flowing water. We propose a three phase conservation strategy for M. margaritifera identifying suitable areas within rivers that (i) have a high conservation value yet needing habitat restoration at a local level, (ii) sites for population supplementation of existing populations and (iii) sites for species reintroduction to rivers where the mussel historically occurred but is now locally extinct. A combined analytical approach including GIS-based landscape scale and ground-truthed habitat scale models provides a robust method by which suitable release sites can be identified for the population supplementation and restoration of an endangered species. Our results will be highly influential in the future management of M. margaritifera in Northern Ireland.

Patterns of ancestry and genetic diversity in reintroduced populations of the slimy sculpin: implications for conservation

Reintroductions are a common approach for preserving intraspecific biodiversity in fragmented landscapes. However, they may exacerbate the reduction in genetic diversity initially caused by population fragmentation because the effective population size of reintroduced populations is often smaller and reintroduced populations also tend to be more geographically isolated than native populations. Mixing genetically divergent sources for reintroduction purposes is a practice intended to increase genetic diversity. We documented the outcome of reintroductions from three mixed sources on the ancestral composition and genetic variation of a North American fish, the slimy sculpin (Cottus cognatus). We used microsatellite markers to evaluate allelic richness and heterozygosity in the reintroduced populations relative to computer simulated expectations. Sculpins in reintroduced populations exhibited higher levels of heterozygosity and allelic richness than any single source, but only slightly higher than the single most genetically diverse source population. Simulations intended to mimic an ideal scenario for maximizing genetic variation in the reintroduced populations also predicted increases, but they were only moderately greater than the most variable source population. We found that a single source contributed more than the other two sources at most reintroduction sites. We urge caution when choosing whether to mix source populations in reintroduction programs. Genetic characteristics of candidate source populations should be evaluated prior to reintroduction if feasible. When combined with knowledge of the degree of genetic distinction among sources, simulations may allow the genetic diversity benefits of mixing populations to be weighed against the risks of outbreeding depression in reintroduced and nearby populations.

Founder Effects, Inbreeding, and Loss of Genetic Diversity in Four Avian Reintroduction Programs

The number of individuals translocated and released as part of a reintroduction is often small, as is the final established population, because the reintroduction site is typically small. Small founder and small resulting populations can result in population bottlenecks, which are associated with increased rates of inbreeding and loss of genetic diversity, both of which can affect the long-term viability of reintroduced populations. I used information derived from pedigrees of four monogamous bird species reintroduced onto two different islands (220 and 259 ha) in New Zealand to compare the pattern of inbreeding and loss of genetic diversity among the reintroduced populations. Although reintroduced populations founded with few individuals had higher levels of inbreeding, as predicted, other factors, including biased sex ratio and skewed breeding success, contributed to high levels of inbreeding and loss of genetic diversity. Of the 10-58 individuals released, 4-25 genetic founders contributed at least one living descendent and yielded approximately 3-11 founder-genome equivalents (number of genetic founders assuming an equal contribution of offspring and no random loss of alleles across generations) after seven breeding seasons. This range is much lower than the 20 founder-genome equivalents recommended for captive-bred populations. Although the level of inbreeding in one reintroduced population initially reached three times that of a closely related species, the long-term estimated rate of inbreeding of this one population was approximately one-third that of the other species due to differences in carrying capacities of the respective reintroduction sites. The increasing number of reintroductions to suitable areas that are smaller than those I examined here suggests that it might be useful to develop long-term strategies and guidelines for reintroduction programs, which would minimize inbreeding and maintain genetic diversity.

Habitat Use of the Tuxedo Darter (Etheostoma lemniscatum) at Macrohabitat and Microhabitat Spatial Sclaes

ABSTRACT Underwater observation was used to quantify patterns of habitat use for the tuxedo darter (Etheostoma lemniscatum) throughout its range in the Big South Fork of the Cumberland River. Macrohabitat and microhabitat variables were recorded at 12 sites from July through early October in summer of 2008 and 2009. Probability of tuxedo darter presence at a site increased with available cobble substrate and shallow pool habitat. Preferred summer microhabitat included depths between 20 and 80 cm, velocities less than 0.1 m/s, and cover rocks with surface areas between 200 and 1400 cm2. Although other variables may affect presence, tuxedo darter distribution was limited by the availability of suitable habitat. Due to environmental variation in annual flow regimes, our models describe habitat use during drought and during above average flows. Models from this study identify critical tuxedo darter habitats, which can aid recovery efforts by identifying potential monitoring and reintroduction sites.

Integrating physiology into conservation: an approach to help guide translocations of a rare reptile in a warming environment

The physiology of an animal determines the range of environmental conditions under which it can survive. Surprisingly, relatively few conservation studies have used physiology to make predictions about the performances of translocated individuals in their new environment. Tuatara Sphenodon punctatus are of international significance as the last rhynchocephalian reptile. Natural populations are now restricted to ∼30 offshore islands in northern New Zealand, where survival of at least one population is threatened by climate change. Translocation to cooler regions (further south, but within the past latitudinal range of the genus) is an important option for future management. However, the genetic suitability of available source populations for environments that are currently cooler is unclear. To help predict the success of translocation, we examined the effects of cool temperature on juveniles sourced from one of the most southerly natural populations and compared these with three lizard species that inhabit southern New Zealand. We found that tuatara possess the same range of preferred body temperature, feeding responses to cool temperatures and critical thermal minimum as these three lizard species. However, tuatara did not digest at temperatures below 12 °C, suggesting that new reintroduction sites must offer enough basking opportunities to allow digestion of prey in winter. As tuatara showed responses to cold temperatures similar to lizards from southern New Zealand, we predict that tuatara will survive if translocated south of their current range, but whether they will be able to produce self-sustaining populations still needs investigation. Physiological predictions from the current study should now be combined with measurements of population performance in an experimental translocation.

Factors affecting population dynamics of re-introduced mountain gazelles ( Gazella gazella) in the Ibex Reserve, central Saudi Arabia

Mountain gazelle ( Gazella gazella) in Saudi Arabia is listed as ‘vulnerable’ by the IUCN. At present the species’ survival is secured by extensive captive-breeding programs and re-introductions into protected areas. Post-monitoring of released individuals is essential for evaluating the success of such re-introductions but managers have difficulties in deciding whether food, water and other resources are sufficient to sustain a stable population. This study reports on data collected during standardized road transect counts in two wadis of the Ibex Reserve into which gazelles were previously released, and aims to compare the success of both re-introduction attempts with resource availability and home range size. Results from step-wise backward multiple regressions identified food availability and population density as significant predictors for home range size. The low amount of available food may have increased the competition between non-related females and therefore led to an increased overlap between non-group members resulting in increased dispersal rates. This information will allow interpretation of habitat suitability and provides possible reasons for the population decrease at both study sites. The data will enable conservation mangers to identify future re-introduction sites and will help improving the success of future re-introductions in Saudi Arabia or other parts of the species range.

Range-wide analysis of wildlife habitat: Implications for conservation

The range-wide habitat status of many endangered species is unclear. We evaluated the status and spatial distribution of the habitat of the endangered giant panda ( Ailuropoda melanoleuca) across its entire geographic range (i.e., six mountain regions located in Sichuan, Shaanxi and Gansu provinces, China) by integrating field and remotely sensed data to develop a habitat distribution model. Results suggest that current suitable habitat corresponds to ca. 1/4 of the habitat baseline (i.e., maximum amount of habitat possible). The highest proportion of suitable habitat relative to the baseline is in the Qinling mountain region. Overall, around 40% of the suitable habitat is inside nature reserves, but the proportion of habitat inside them varied among different mountain regions, ranging from ca. 17% (Lesser Xiangling) to ca. 66% (Qinling). The habitat model also predicted the occurrence of potentially suitable habitat outside the currently accepted geographic range of the species, which should be further evaluated as potential panda reintroduction sites. Our approach is valuable for assessing the conservation status of the entire habitat of the species, for identifying areas with significant ecological roles (e.g., corridors), for identifying areas suitable for panda reintroductions, and for establishing specific conservation strategies in different parts of the giant panda geographic range. It might also prove useful for range-wide habitat analyses of many other endangered species around the world.

Resgate e translocação de Oncidium warmingii (Orchidaceae), espécie ameaçada de extinção de campo rupestre ferruginoso

The viability of a program to rescue and translocate Oncidium warmingii (Orchidaceae), a rupestrian field endangered species, was assessed by two reintroduction methods: direct translocation of the rescued individuals to the reintroduction site and indirect translocation, i.e., previous cultivation in a greenhouse, before translocation to the reintroduction site. 29 rescued plants were monitored for 15 months to evaluate survival, growth rate (number of bulbs), and proportion of bulbs vegetatively active. At the end of the monitoring period, the plants directly translocated to the reintroduction site had higher rates of survival, growth rate and proportion of vegetatively active bulbs. The indirect translocation method was less efficient mainly in the transfer of plants from the greenhouse to the reintroduction site, indicating that it is necessary to use plant hardening techniques to ensure greater adaptation of plants when transferring from the greenhouse to the field. This species has shown good tolerance to the translocation, both directly to the environment or with previous cultivation in a greenhouse. The rescue success of O. warmingii should serve to stimulate similar actions with other endemic and endangered species in areas subjected to the development of human activities that result in the removal of native vegetation. Key words: conservation, orchids, reintroduction, threatened species.

Assessing re-introductions of the African Wild dog ( Lycaon pictus) in the Limpopo Valley Conservancy, South Africa, using the stochastic simulation program VORTEX

The African wild dog ( Lycaon pictus) is one of Africa's most endangered species and therefore classified as endangered by IUCN. Earlier distributions included most of Africa but currently the African wild dog only has populations larger than 300 individuals in three countries (Botswana, Tanzania and South Africa). In 1998, a plan was launched in South Africa to manage sub-populations of the African wild dog in several small, geographically isolated, conservation areas. This management program involved the reintroduction of wild dogs into suitable conservation areas and periodic translocations among them. We used the stochastic population simulation model VORTEX to evaluate the Limpopo Valley Conservancy in the north of South Africa, as a possible reintroduction site for African wild dogs. The simulations showed that the size of the initial population released only had a small effect on the population dynamics. However, when individuals were supplemented and harvested over a longer period the probability of persistence increased. Number of females breeding, male mortality, and carrying capacity were key factors in the population dynamics, but according to VORTEX the severity of natural catastrophes had the greatest influence on the extinction risk and inbreeding. We suggest that the reintroduction program may be successful, if areas are properly secured, the dogs are held in a boma before release, wild animals or at least a mix of wild and captive animals are used for the release and the animals are vaccinated against rabies. It is, however, essential to continue monitoring followed by modelling efforts to re-evaluate the success of the reintroduction program.

Reevaluating suitable habitat for reintroductions: lessons learnt from the eastern barred bandicoot recovery program

AbstractReintroduction and translocation programs are widely used conservation tools but their success rates are low. Poor success rates for reintroduction programs are commonly attributed to insufficient knowledge of species' habitat requirements, especially if they are critically endangered. Yet conservation managers are frequently required to make decisions about suitable reintroduction sites when information is incomplete or uncertain. A widely used strategy to assist the selection of reintroduction sites – habitat suitability models – may rely on assumptions and simplifications to fill gaps in existing data. It is essential that these models are then evaluated and refined as new evidence becomes available. In this study, we examine the effectiveness of a reintroduction program based on habitat suitability modelling: that for the critically endangered eastern barred bandicoot Perameles gunnii in Australia. After collecting a variety of data from the reintroduction sites, we found that habitat preferences for this species could be accurately predicted using a simple logistic regression model within two predictor variables rather than the five previously used to select reintroduction sites. This made it possible to better focus limited resources on the most suitable reintroduction sites. We believe that building such a process of review into a reintroduction program can contribute to improving its success, while ensuring that scarce conservation resources are used more effectively.

European Bison habitat in the Carpathian Mountains

European Bison ( Bison bonasus) barely escaped extinction in the early 20th century and now only occur in small isolated herds scattered across Central and Eastern Europe. The species’ survival in the wild depends on identifying suitable habitat for establishing bison metapopulations via reintroductions of new herds. We assessed European Bison habitat across the Carpathian Mountains, a stronghold of European Bison and one of the only places where a viable bison metapopulation may be possible. We used maximum entropy models to analyze herd range maps and habitat use data from radio-collared bison to identify key habitat variables and map European Bison habitat across the entire Carpathian ecoregion (210,000 km 2). Forest cover (primarily core and perforated forests) and variables linked to human disturbance best predict bison habitat suitability. Bison show no clear preference for particular forest types but prefer managed grasslands over fallow and abandoned fields. Several large, suitable, but currently unoccupied habitat patches exist, particularly in the eastern Carpathians. This available suitable habitat suggests that European Bison have an opportunity to establish a viable Carpathian metapopulation, especially if recent trends of declining human pressure and reforestation of abandoned farmland continue. Our results also confirm the suitability of a proposed Romanian reintroduction site. Establishing the first European Bison metapopulation would be a milestone in efforts to conserve this species in the wild and demonstrate a significant and hopeful step towards conserving large grazers and their ecological roles in human-dominated landscapes across the globe.

Rescue and translocation of Oncidium warmingii (Orchidaceae), an endangered species from ironstone rupestrian fields

The viability of a program to rescue and translocate Oncidium warmingii (Orchidaceae), a rupestrian field endangered species, was assessed by two reintroduction methods: direct translocation of the rescued individuals to the reintroduction site and indirect translocation, i.e., previous cultivation in a greenhouse, before translocation to the reintroduction site. 29 rescued plants were monitored for 15 months to evaluate survival, growth rate (number of bulbs), and proportion of bulbs vegetatively active. At the end of the monitoring period, the plants directly translocated to the reintroduction site had higher rates of survival, growth rate and proportion of vegetatively active bulbs. The indirect translocation method was less efficient mainly in the transfer of plants from the greenhouse to the reintroduction site, indicating that it is necessary to use plant hardening techniques to ensure greater adaptation of plants when transferring from the greenhouse to the field. This species has shown good tolerance to the translocation, both directly to the environment or with previous cultivation in a greenhouse. The rescue success of O. warmingii should serve to stimulate similar actions with other endemic and endangered species in areas subjected to the development of human activities that result in the removal of native vegetation. Key words: conservation, orchids, reintroduction, threatened species.

Population Density and Instream Habitat Suitability of the Endangered Cape Fear Shiner

AbstractThe Cape Fear shiner Notropis mekistocholas is an endangered minnow endemic to the Cape Fear River basin of North Carolina; only five populations remain, all of which are declining. Determining the population densities and habitat requirements of the species is critical to its survival and restoration planning. We conducted population surveys (four sites) and instream microhabitat suitability analyses (six sites) on the Rocky and Deep rivers to (1) estimate the population density of Cape Fear shiners, (2) quantify the use, availability, and suitability of microhabitats, and (3) determine whether physical habitat alterations were a likely cause of local extirpations and whether instream habitat limits the occurrence and density of this species. Density ranged from 795 fish/ha to 1,393 fish/ha (4,768–7,392 fish/km) at three of the sites surveyed and was too low to be estimated at the fourth site. The fish most frequently occupied riffles and velocity breaks at moderate depths over gravel substrates. It occupied microhabitats nonrandomly with respect to availability; the microhabitats occupied were similar between spawning and postspawning seasons but shallower during spawning. Comparisons of suitable habitat among sites where the fish is extant, rare, or extirpated suggest that suitable substrate (gravel) is lacking where the fish is rare and that suitable microhabitat combinations, especially with respect to water velocity, are rare at all sites. Potential reintroduction sites where the species is rare or extirpated were shallower than extant sites, and one site where the fish is extirpated contained suitable physical habitat but lacked adequate water quality. Another site where the species is rare would require substrate alteration to improve conditions. The survival and recovery of the Cape Fear shiner is dependent on the protection of remaining suitable physical habitat with approaches that consider instream habitat, water quality, and biotic interactions as well as human uses and alterations of the river, riparian zone, and watershed.

Eutrophication and endangered aquatic plants: an experimental study on Baldellia ranunculoides (L.) Parl. (Alismataceae)

Anthropogenic enrichment of aquatic ecosystems is an increasingly common phenomenon, resulting from human population growth and the intensification of industrial and agricultural develop- ments. Eutrophication has been considered to be one of the main causes of the decline of many aquatic plants. These observations, however, have rarely been supported by data or explored in detail using an experimental approach. Our experimental study dem- onstrates, for the first time, a strong direct negative influence of eutrophication on the performance of the endangered aquatic plant Baldellia ranunculoides s.str. (L.) Parl. (Alismataceae). Both morphological and reproductive traits were significantly affected by this phenomenon. Plants growing on eutrophic sub- strates were much smaller, possessed fewer and smaller leaves, and their biomass was on average half that of plants growing on a mesotrophic substrate. Additionally, plants growing on eutrophic substrates produced fewer inflorescences and flowers, and they had a smaller number of achenes per capitulum. Consequently, they produced only 15% of the seeds produced by plants growing in non-eutrophic condi- tions. Thus, the chance of long-term subsistence of B. ranunculoides populations in strongly eutrophic habitats will be significantly reduced, and at the same time, the success of any new establishment of viable B. ranunculoides populations in such habitats will be highly restricted. Conservation efforts for B. ranun- culoides, either of existing populations or in newly selected re-introduction sites, should start, therefore, with an assessment of the trophic level of those sites. On the other hand, due to its sensitivity to eutrophication, the presence of viable populations of B. ranunculoides can be used as an indicator of valuable aquatic habitats for oligotrophy-dependent organisms.

Population Indices Versus Correlated Density Estimates of Black‐Footed Ferret Abundance

ABSTRACT Estimating abundance of carnivore populations is problematic because individuals typically are elusive, nocturnal, and dispersed across the landscape. Rare or endangered carnivore populations are even more difficult to estimate because of small sample sizes. Considering behavioral ecology of the target species can drastically improve survey efficiency and effectiveness. Previously, abundance of the black‐footed ferret (Mustela nigripes) was monitored by spotlighting and generating indices of relative abundance because reintroduced populations were slow to establish. Indices, however, lack variance estimates and are costly to generate for the black‐footed ferret. We therefore used spotlight surveys and live‐trapping in conjunction with a robust mark‐recapture estimator to improve abundance monitoring for the black‐footed ferret, one of North America's most endangered carnivores. We estimated abundance of the black‐footed ferret at Shirley Basin, Wyoming, USA, using correlated density estimates and Program MARK. We compared our results to 2 indices of relative abundance, minimum number alive and predicted number of ferrets from litter counts. The correlated density estimate for the black‐footed ferret (N̂R = 229; 95% CI = 161–298) was similar to minimum number alive (N̂R = 192) and predicted number of ferrets from litter counts (N̂R= 235). The efficiency and effectiveness of survey methods we used for the black‐footed ferret were high by carnivoran standards. Our results suggest that the sampling approach we utilized can be implemented for a fraction of the cost and effort required to generate 2 indices of relative abundance for the black‐footed ferret. Although we recommend managers implement a similar survey approach to monitor abundance of reintroduced populations of the black‐footed ferret, analysis with sparse data sets will be problematic. Until the black‐footed ferret becomes widespread and abundant at a reintroduction site, spotlighting will remain preferable as a means to generate indices of distribution and relative abundance for the black‐footed ferret.

Use of monitoring data and population viability analysis to inform reintroduction decisions: Peregrine falcons in the Midwestern United States

The peregrine falcon ( Falco peregrinus anatum) has not yet recolonized natural cliff sites in Illinois and much of the lower Midwestern US, and remains restricted to urban areas. We constructed a landscape-linked population viability analysis using RAMAS/GIS software to compare possible reintroduction strategies for the species. Habitat-specific (i.e. cliff and urban) demographic parameters such as survival, fecundity, and dispersal rates were derived from the Midwest Peregrine Society Database for peregrines in the central Mississippi River region during 1982–2006. We simulated a base scenario of no reintroduction and 18 models of reintroduction with varying cohort sizes, supplementation schedules, and number of reintroduction sites, and used the Lake Superior population to test our model. Our analysis indicated that even without reintroductions in Illinois, the peregrine population in the lower Midwestern region is slowly increasing and is not likely to go extinct. Recolonization of cliff sites in southern Illinois likely will occur via dispersal from urban populations, however further research on dispersal rates between urban areas and cliffs is needed. Analysis indicated that the most cost-effective reintroduction strategy would be priced at approximately $280,000 and would result in only two additional breeding pairs compared to the no-action scenario. Thus, funds would be more effectively used in other management efforts such as habitat preservation. This study provides an example of how post-release monitoring can be used to inform future reintroduction plans.

Predicting the distribution of a suitable habitat for the white stork in Southern Sweden: identifying priority areas for reintroduction and habitat restoration

AbstractThe loss of wetlands and semi‐natural grasslands throughout much of Europe has led to a historic decline of species associated with these habitats. The reinstatement of these habitats, however, requires spatially explicit predictions of the most suitable sites for restoration, to maximize the ecological benefit per unit effort. One species that demonstrates such declines is the white storkCiconia ciconia, and the restoration of habitat for this flagship species is likely to benefit a suite of other wetland and grassland biota. Storks are also being reintroduced into southern Sweden and elsewhere, and thea prioriidentification of suitable sites for reintroduction will greatly improve the success of such programmes. Here a simple predictive habitat‐use model was developed, where only a small but reliable presence‐only dataset was available. The model is based on the extent and relative soil moisture of semi‐natural pastures, the extent of wetlands and the extent of hayfields in southern Sweden. Here the model was used to predict the current extent of stork habitat that is suitable for successful breeding, and the extent of habitat that would become suitable with moderate habitat restoration. The habitat model identifies all 10 occupied nesting sites where breeding is currently successful. It also identifies ∼300 km2of habitat that is predicted to be suitable stork habitat, but that is presently unused; these sites were identified as potential areas for stork reintroduction. The model also identifies over 100 areas where moderate habitat restoration is predicted to have a disproportionate effect (relative to the restoration effort) on the area of suitable habitat for storks; these sites were identified as priorities for habitat restoration. By identifying areas for reintroduction and restoration, such habitat suitability models have the potential to maximize the effectiveness of such conservation programmes.

Transmitter-equipped darts in a protocol for chemically immobilizing free-ranging red deer (Cervus elaphus) in Central Italy

Twenty-two free-ranging red deer (Cervus elaphus), 9 males and 13 females (7 months to 13 years old), were captured in October-November 2006 and December 2007, along the Apenninic ridge (44°06’N, 11°00’E) between the Pistoia (Tuscany) and Bologna (Emilia-Romagna) provinces, as part of a reintroduction project in Gran Sasso and Laga’s Mountains National Park (42°33’N, 13°28’E), Italy. The aim of the study was to evaluate the effectiveness of a red deer capture protocol, using equipped transmitter darts, in Apennine areas where other methods had not been successful. The red deer were darted (by an operative team of 5-7 operators during dark hours) with a mixture of Zoletil® (Z) and xylazine (X) and, whenever secondary dosages became necessary, a mixture of ketamine (K) and X were used. Twenty-five animals were shot, only 3 of which could not be approached to re-dart them. All animals were darted, during dark hours, from a vehicle at a distance of 10-30 m and then recovered, using 3-cc disposable Pneu-dart® transmitter darts, 50-280 m (median 80 m) from the dart site. These technical choices were forced by an uneven and wooded environment of the study area. Before the transport to the reintroduction site, the animals were kept in a lairage stable, arranged in single boxes, provided with water and food. This accommodation was necessary to collect a reasonable number of animals to arrange the transport. The immobilized animals were brought to the stable and haemoglobin saturation and heart rate were constantly monitored with a pulse oximeter. Oxygen was insufflated into a nostril at a rate of 10 litres/min for 20-35 min. Atipamezole was administered two thirds intramuscularly (IM) and one third intravenously, 45 to 120 min after the last IM narcotic injection, to revive the animals. No side effects other than different levels of meteorism, were displayed. In conclusion, the protocol applied, which proved safe for the animals and had optimal success in the recovery of darted subjects, can be considered effective to capture free-ranging deer in areas that are thickly wooded and difficult to traverse as areas of the Apennine.

Genetic diversity and structure in Canadian northern leopard frog (Rana pipiens) populations: implications for reintroduction programs

The northern leopard frog ( Rana pipiens Schreber, 1782) underwent a large decline in the western portion of its range and only occurs in 20% of historically occupied sites in Alberta. Its absence may reflect an inability to disperse to these sites because of habitat fragmentation, and human-mediated translocation has been proposed. In this study, we used three criteria to examine the genetic suitability of potential translocation sources: diversity, similarity to area of reintroduction, and evolutionary history. We genotyped 187 samples and sequenced 812 bp of the mitochondrial NADH dehydrogenase 1 gene from 14 Canadian northern leopard frog populations. Nuclear and mitochondrial diversity were highest in Manitoba and western Ontario and declined westward. There was no significant relationship between genetic and geographic distance, suggesting that genetic drift is a driving force affecting the genetic relationships between populations. Regions separated by more than ~50 km were quite differentiated. Therefore, source populations similar to the original inhabitants of an area for reintroduction may be uncommon. Mitochondrial analyses revealed that all populations share a close evolutionary history, belonging to the western haplotype group. While genetic criteria support the use of Manitoba and Ontario as sources, the desirability of environmental similarity to the reintroduction site suggests that ecologically exchangeable Alberta populations should also be considered.