Reintroduction Of Animals Research Articles

Animal reintroductions: An innovative assessment of survival

Quantitative evaluations of reintroductions are infrequent and assessments of milestones reached before a project is completed, or abandoned due to lack of funding, are rare. However, such assessments, which are promoted in adaptive management frameworks, are critical. Quantification can provide defensible estimates of biological success, such as the number of survivors from a released cohort, with associated cost per animal. It is unlikely that the global issues of endangered wildlife and population declines will abate, therefore, assurance colonies and reintroductions are likely to become more common. If such endeavors are to be successful biologically or achieve adequate funding, implementation must be more rigorous and accountable. We use a novel application of a multistate, robust design capture–recapture model to estimate survival of reintroduced tadpoles through metamorphosis (i.e., the number of individuals emerging from the pond) and thereby provide a quantitative measure of effort and success for an “in progress” reintroduction of toads. Our data also suggest that tadpoles released at later developmental stages have an increased probability of survival and that eggs laid in the wild hatched at higher rates than eggs laid by captive toads. We illustrate how an interim assessment can identify problems, highlight successes, and provide information for use in adjusting the effort or implementing a Decision-Theoretic adaptive management strategy.

Better off in the wild? Evaluating a captive breeding and release program for the recovery of an endangered rodent

The critical question for the success of all captive breeding and release programs (CBRPs) is the same: will the benefit of augmenting or reestablishing a population with captive animals outweigh the loss of taking individuals from the wild? Yet, few studies have simultaneously evaluated the impact of removal of animals for captive breeding on the source population and the potential contribution of the released animals to the augmented populations. We used the endangered Key Largo woodrat (Neotoma floridana smalli, KLWR) as a model system to simultaneously examine the effect of animal removal, captive breeding, and reintroduction on the dynamics and persistence of a wild population. We used mark-recapture and telemetry data, as well as zoo records from a recent CBRP for the endangered KLWR to parameterize a matrix population model and to simulate the response of the KLWR population to alternative captive breeding and release strategies. Our results suggest that a CBRP as practiced previously would not contribute to KLWR recovery; instead, removal of wild KLWR for captive breeding could harm the population. Captive breeding programs will not contribute to the recovery of KLWR unless survival of released animals and breeding success of captive individuals are improved. Our study provides a framework for simultaneous consideration of animal removal from the wild, breeding success in captivity and survival of released animals for a comprehensive evaluation of captive breeding programs.

An Annotated Checklist of the Mammals of Kuwait

An annotated checklist of the mammals of Kuwait is presented, based on the literature, personal communications, a Kuwait website and a blog and the author’s observations. Twenty five species occur, a further four are uncommon or rare visitors, six used to occur whilst another two are of doubtful provenance. This list should assist those planning desert rehabilitation, animal reintroduction and protected area projects in Kuwait.

Threat Perception and Attitudes of Adolescents Towards Re-Introduced Wild Animals: A qualitative study of young learners from affected regions in Germany

Conservation efforts such as the restoration of European bison or the support of wolf immigration into Germany are often socio-scientifically controversial. In many cases, disputes are based on individuals’ threat perception and attitudes towards the animal involved. The herewith reported study provides qualitative insights into German adolescents’ (n = 31, Mage = 16.6 years) attitudes towards animal reintroduction, their threat and coping appraisal about wildlife and their knowledge of local endangered species. We found that students had rather limited knowledge of local endangered species. After Kellert's categories of animal attitudes, the adolescents showed a strong moralistic view on wildlife return. Naturalistic, ecologistic and utilitarian views were also strongly apparent. According to the Protection Motivation Theory, perceived threats could be identified as threats to animals on the one hand and threats to human interests on the other. Such threat perceptions often lead to a dilemma, which made it difficult to decide upon the priorities of wildlife protection versus protection of human interests. Coping mechanism to reduce threats to human interests as mentioned by the participants included restrictions of the animal as well as strategies that focused on responsibility by humans. Regarding coping mechanism to prevent the species’ extinction, participants showed a relatively superficial understanding. Furthermore, we found that participants from regions where wolves are currently immigrating or European bison are being reintroduced showed a more positive understanding of the respective animal. Our findings are discussed in the light of this topic's potential as an example of a real-life socio-scientific issue in classroom discussions.

Political decision making, governance shifts and Scottish animal reintroductions: are democratic principles at stake?

Contemporary governance systems have been characterised as ‘multi-actor’ and ‘multi-level’, but the consequences of such greater complexity for core principles of democracy remain uncertain. To investigate the effects of these late-modern governance shifts, we used political decision making on Scottish reintroductions of charismatic animals as a case study. Based on interviews with key actors engaged in the reintroduction of the white-tailed eagle, beaver and (potentially) lynx, we analysed the impact of governance shifts against four selected democratic principles. We found that new modes of governance can make decision-making processes look better than they actually are, and may even harm democratic principles.

Conflicting and Complementary Ethics of Animal Welfare Considerations in Reintroductions

Despite differences in focus, goals, and strategies between conservation biology and animal welfare, both are inextricably linked in many ways, and greater consideration of animal welfare, although important in its own right, also has considerable potential to contribute to conservation success. Nevertheless, animal welfare and animal ethics are not always considered explicitly within conservation practice. We systematically reviewed the recent scientific peer-reviewed and online gray literature on reintroductions of captive-bred and wild-caught animals (mammals, birds, amphibians, and reptiles) to quantify the occurrence of animal welfare issues. We considered monitoring that could be indicative of the animal's welfare status and supportive management actions that could improve animal welfare (regardless of whether the aim was explicitly animal-welfare orientated). Potential welfare issues (of variable nature and extent) were recorded in 67% of 199 projects reviewed; the most common were mortality >50%, dispersal or loss of animals, disease, and human conflict. Most (>70%) projects monitored survival, 18% assessed body condition, and 2% monitored stress levels. Animal welfare, explicitly, was referred to in 6% of projects. Supportive actions, most commonly use of on-site prerelease pens and provision of supplemental food or water, were implemented in 79% of projects, although the extent and duration of support varied. Practitioners can address animal-welfare issues in reintroductions by considering the potential implications for individual animals at all stages of the release process using the decision tree presented. We urge practitioners to report potential animal-welfare issues, describe mitigation actions, and evaluate their efficacy to facilitate transparent evaluation of common moral dilemmas and to advance communal strategies for dealing with them. Currently, comparative mortality rates, health risks, postrelease stress, effectiveness of supportive measures, and behavior of individuals warrant further research to improve animal welfare in reintroductions and to increase success of such projects.

Wildlife value orientations as predicting factors in support of reintroducing bison and of wolves migrating to Germany

In the light of the worldwide biodiversity convention, the return of the wolf and the planned reintroduction of the European bison to Germany are seen as success stories in efforts to protect biological diversity. Prerequisite to the successful long-term reintroduction of wild animals is the support and approval of the return of animal populations by the general public. To better understand opinions towards wildlife and wildlife management, which often underlie controversies, the influence of wildlife related value orientations has been the focus of empirical research in recent years. In the current study, we examined wildlife value orientations in a sample of German students (n=364) majoring in three different university subjects: agriculture; landscape ecology/nature conservation; and, social sciences. Analysis showed internal consistencies among the items comprising the wildlife value orientation scale. As theoretically expected, results of multiple regression analysis revealed wildlife value orientations have great impact on a decision to support the return of wolves and bison to Germany. In conclusion, the instrument, developed in the US, turned out to be reliable and had predictive value for the use in Germany. Also, we found differences in wildlife value orientation in relation to the factors of gender and academic background. A value orientation that focuses on mutualism was usually subjected to gender and academic major interaction effects. Males and females within and between student groups placed different weight on wildlife value orientations, possibly generating a potential for conflicts relating to wildlife management decisions, such as the reintroduction of bison or the support of wolves’ return.

Common stories of reintroduction: A discourse analysis of documents supporting animal reintroductions to Scotland

Political decisions on environmental issues are increasingly required to be ‘knowledge based’, which has led to a wealth of (scientific) expert documents that aim to inform decision-making. However, the roles of rhetoric and argumentation in those documents have received relatively little scientific attention. We studied 111 expert documents in support of reintroductions to Scotland and identified the elements that constituted the discourses of white-tailed eagle, beaver and lynx. Similar building blocks (so-called storylines) were found in all three debates. The pro-reintroduction discourse as a whole bore resemblance with other contemporary environmental management discourses: In what could be termed ‘win-win logic’, positive storylines were combined to point at the necessity of a management intervention, in our case a reintroduction. Yet, additional mechanisms were also at work which suggests that downplaying negatives can be as important as dwelling on positives. Crucially, we found that the Scottish pro-reintroduction discourse might have become increasingly ‘reflexive’ in terms of its rhetoric and argumentation. The latter development may have major implications for political decision-making. A more critical use of rhetoric and argumentation in expert documentation is needed to achieve environmental political decision-making that is open to any possible outcome of deliberation (including non-reintroduction).

Differences in helminth infections between captive and wild spur-thighed tortoises Testudo graeca in southern Spain: A potential risk of reintroductions of this species

Although the spur-thighed tortoise, Testudo graeca, is one of the most widely distributed species of tortoises, its natural populations are threatened through its whole range. Particularly at south-eastern Spain, the species is mainly threatened by habitat destruction and over-collection, given that this chelonian has been traditionally considered an appreciate pet. As south-eastern Spanish wildlife recovery centers shelter hundreds of captive animals mainly coming from illegal trade or captive-bred, there is a strong debate about what to do with these animals: maintaining them in captivity all along their lives or reintroducing them to wildlife. It is well known that the reintroduction of captive animals supposes a risk for the wild population due to the uncertainty of their genetic origin and to the possible spread of infectious diseases. However, despite the increasing evidence that infectious agents are a potential health hazard for wildlife, little is known about the risk that introduced parasites could suppose for the wild populations of spur-thighed tortoise.The present study investigates for the first time the presence of helminth eggs and worms in faeces from 107 wild and captive individuals collected from mid-March to mid-June 2010, and relates the findings to different environmental and host variables. Sixteen oxyurid species and the ascarid Angusticaecum holopterum were identified. This last nematode and the oxyurid species Tachygonetria palearticus and T. seurati had not been reported in Spanish wild T. graeca previously. The prevalence of oxyurid eggs and worms were 94% and 70%, respectively; while, ascarid eggs and worms were found in 26% and 5% of tortoises, respectively. Ascarid infections affected mostly captive animals and were associated to caparace deformities and symptoms of upper respiratory tract disease (p<0.05). Oxyurid infections were not associated to negative health traits and prevalence increased with age. In free-living tortoises, the distribution of pharingodonid genera also varied according to habitat; moreover, T. longicollis, T. pusilla, T. conica, T. robusta and Mehdiella stylosa where significantly more frequent in wild compared to captive tortoises (p<0.05). Study results highlight important differences in the nematode fauna of captive and free-living tortoises and questions one more time if the reintroductions of captive animals suppose a risk for the wild population since the former ones can harbor and distribute among free populations pathogens like ascarid nematodes.

Conservation Education and Environmental Communication in Great Ape Re-Introduction Projects: Two Cases From the Republic of Congo

Among species recovery tools available, re-introduction of animals to the wild is one of the more complex. Since the mid-1990s two successful great ape re-introductions have taken place in the Republic of Congo, leading some conservationists to revisit re-introduction as a strategy. This research explored the role of conservation education and environmental communication in the projects, including activities undertaken, stakeholder perceptions of success and impacts on project outcomes. The research found that education and communication activities, while varied and broad, were managed in an ad hoc, intuitive manner, lacking priority, expertise, and funding leading to recommendations for future reintroduction projects.

A Suite of Microsatellite Markers Optimized for Amplification of DNA From Addax (Addax nasomaculatus) Blood Preserved on FTA Cards

The addax (Addax nasomaculatus) is a critically endangered antelope that is currently maintained in zoos through regional, conservation breeding programs. As for many captive species, incomplete pedigree data currently impedes the ability of addax breeding programs to confidently manage the genetics of captive populations and to select appropriate animals for reintroduction. Molecular markers are often used to improve pedigree resolution, thereby improving the long-term effectiveness of genetic management. When developing a suite of molecular markers, it is important to consider the source of DNA, as the utility of markers may vary across DNA sources. In this study, we optimized a suite of microsatellite markers for use in genotyping captive addax blood samples collected on FTA cards. We amplified 66 microsatellite loci previously described in other Artiodactyls. Sixteen markers amplified a single product in addax, but only 5 of these were found to be polymorphic in a sample of 37 addax sampled from a captive herd at Fossil Rim Wildlife Center in the US. The suite of microsatellite markers developed in this study provides a new tool for the genetic management of captive addax, and demonstrates that FTA cards can be a useful means of sample storage, provided appropriate loci are used in downstream analyses.

Assessing the genetic integrity of captive and wild populations for reintroduction programs: the case of Cabot's Tragopan in China

Reintroduction of captive-bred animals into suitable habitats is an important technique for the long-term conservation and recovery of populations of endangered species in fragmented landscapes. In- breeding depression is an inherent risk when using captive populations for reintroduction programs and needs to be carefully assessed prior to reintroduction. In this study, we evaluated inbreeding levels within a captive breeding program and one remnant wild population of Cabot's Tragopan (Tragopan caboti), an endangered pheasant species endemic to China, for which reintroduction is now an essential conservation strategy for long-term population persistence. Fifteen highly polymorphic microsatellite loci were devel- oped to genotype individuals. Inbreeding coefficients ( F IS ) reveal that there is no evidence of inbreeding within the Tragopan Breeding Center of Beijing Normal University (TBCBNU) captive population and the remnant population from the Wuyi-Yandang Mountains. Diversity of origin, large founder population size and a rational breeding strategy are the most critical factors preventing inbreeding depression within the TBCBNU captive population. We suggest that the TBCBNU population is a suitable candidate stock for T. caboti reintroduction programs and that there is an urgent need to better coordinate and strengthen repro- duction management of captive T. caboti populations to sustain the long-term ex situ conservation of the species.

Testing reintroduction as a conservation strategy for the critically endangered Chinese alligator: Movements and home range of released captive individuals

The Chinese alligator (Alligator sinensis) is considered the most critically endangered crocodilian as a result of the near total loss of its habitat and its extremely small and fragmented wild populations. Plans for population recovery lie mostly with wetland restoration and the reintroduction of captive-reared animals. We carried out a first-trial release of 3 adult Chinese alligators (1♂, 2♀) into a pond at the Hongxing conservation site, Xuancheng, southern Anhui Province; the animals were radio-tracked from May to October in 2003. We hypothesized that after a period of adaptation, the alligators would establish definable home ranges. Two (1♂, 1♀) of the 3 alligators were monitored for the whole of the tracking period. The male had an annual home-range size of 7.61 hm2, and the female 4.00 hm2. Water temperature and pond water level were two important factors influencing the alligators’ distributions, and daily movements. The radio-tracked alligators had overlapping home ranges, which notably included the one substantial island in the pond; that island is the only known nesting site of the local native wild alligators. Aggressive interactions between the released alligators and native wild alligators were observed during the breeding season around this island. All the three reintroduced alligators survived the winter of 2003 and were alive in the same pond in 2008. We concluded that the Hongxing conservation site provided a suitable habitat for the reintroduced alligators. However, the low water level in the pond resulting from farmland irrigation in August and September can be a substantial threat to the alligators’ survival. Therefore, regulations on irrigation in summer and autumn are needed to balance the water needs of the alligators and agriculture.

Cost-Effectiveness of Translocation Options for a Threatened Waterbird

Reintroduction of captive-reared animals has become increasingly popular in recent decades as a conservation technique, but little is known of how demographic factors affect the success of reintroductions. We believe whether the increase in population persistence associated with reintroduction is sufficient to warrant the cost of rearing and relocating individuals should be considered as well. We examined the trade-off between population persistence and financial cost of a reintroduction program for Crested Coots (Fulica cristata). This species was nearly extirpated from southern Europe due to unsustainable levels of hunting and reduction in amount and quality of habitat. We used a stochastic, stage-based, single-sex, metapopulation model with site-specific parameters to examine the demographic effects of releasing juveniles or adults in each population for a range of durations. We parameterized the model with data from an unsuccessful reintroduction program in which juvenile captive-bred Crested Coots were released between 2000 and 2009. Using economic data from the captive-breeding program, we also determined whether the strategy that maximized abundance coincided with the least expensive strategy. Releasing adults resulted in slightly larger final abundance than the release of nonreproductive juveniles. Both strategies were equally poor in achieving a viable metapopulation, but releasing adults was 2-4 times more expensive than releasing juveniles. To obtain a metapopulation that would be viable for 30 years, fecundity in the wild would need to increase to the values observed in captivity and juvenile survival would need to increase to almost unity. We suggest that the most likely way to increase these vital rates is by increasing habitat quality at release sites.

Public perceptions of jaguars Panthera onca, pumas Puma concolor and coyotes Canis latrans in El Salvador

High human population density, histories of social conflict, environmental change and negative social attitudes are crucial issues for large carnivore conservation and reintroductions, which may be influenced by human age and gender, animal size and behaviour. Jaguars and pumas are extinct in El Salvador, but conservation and reintroduction schemes are debated across Central and South America. This paper examines public attitudes in El Salvador towards the extinct jaguars and pumas, and the fairly common coyote. One hundred and thirteen people were contacted and classified according to age and gender in San Salvador, La Union, Ahuachapan, Apopa, San Miguel and Santa Ana. The majority of people believed: in the toleration and removal of carnivores rather than shooting; in the introduction of jaguars and pumas into rural and special areas and zoos; that more animal protection was necessary; that the animals were good for human life, yet dangerous to children. Pumas were seen as the most dangerous, followed by jaguars and coyotes, but in most cases all three were seen as similar. Women were less tolerant of large carnivores, were more sensitive to negative impacts, and were more afraid of the animals than men. Younger people were more tolerant, and saw less danger to other animals and people, and were more supportive of animal reintroductions. Gender was irrelevant in the trapping and removal, and shooting of animals, protection levels, reintroductions and dangers to people and cattle. Age was irrelevant to animal protection levels, dangers to people and impacts on human quality of life. These findings are important for conservation policy and environmental geography.

Captive-reared burrowing owls show higher site-affinity, survival, and reproductive performance when reintroduced using a soft-release

A remaining challenge for animal reintroductions is how best to aid individuals transitioning from captivity into the wild. We tested two techniques – ‘soft’ vs. ‘hard’ release – in a 7-year study on endangered Western burrowing owls ( Athene cunicularia hypugaea) in British Columbia, Canada. Traditionally, captive-reared yearling adults were released into the wild, as pairs, directly from artificial burrows (hard-release). Only 46% of 201 owls released in this way (2001–2004) stayed at release sites. To test for improved success, soft-releases were performed in the same manner as concurrent hard-releases (2005–2007), except above-ground enclosures confined each soft-release pair to the vicinity of their burrow for 2 weeks before complete release. Of 140 soft-released owls, 86% stayed at release sites; whereas, 66% of 100 hard-released owls stayed. Breeding-season survival was 70% for soft-released owls vs. 50% for hard-released owls. On average, soft-released owls produced 50% more fledglings than concurrently hard-released owls. Post-fledging survival was 69% and first-year return rate was 7.0% for fledglings from soft-released parents, compared to 50% and 4.0% for fledglings from hard-release parents. Ultimately, 0.17 offspring were recruited into the local wild breeding population per soft-released pair, compared to 0.05 local recruits per hard-released pair. We recommend that enclosure-based soft-releases be used for reintroduction of burrowing owls in British Columbia and elsewhere in North America. We encourage other tests for improved release success with soft-releases, particularly for species with a high tendency for dispersal or those likely to experience significant predation pressure.

Movement patterns by Egernia napoleonis following reintroduction into restored jarrah forest

Context The value of animal reintroduction as a conservation tool is debated. This is largely because the limited quantity of research that has been conducted on animal reintroductions has shown varying degrees of success in establishing new populations. The reasons why some reintroductions are successful, whereas others are not, are often not clear. Aims The present research aims to determine whether reptile reintroduction into restored mine pits is a potential management technique for managing and conserving reptile populations within a mined landscape. Methods Twelve Napoleon’s skinks were trapped then fitted with 0.9-g transmitters. Half were reintroduced into 5-year-old restored mine pits and the other half into unmined forest. Bodyweights, movement patterns and macro-habitat selection were recorded weekly during November and then monthly until March. Key results Skinks reintroduced into restored sites quickly moved into unmined forest. Both groups of skinks moved large distances, but those reintroduced into restored sites travelled further than did control skinks and took longer to reduce their distances travelled, showing possible stress as a result of release into unsuitable habitat. Eventually, almost all skinks found suitable habitat in unmined forest and settled into these areas while continuing to gain weight. Conclusions Reintroduction was an ineffective technique for facilitating colonisation of restored minesites by Napoleon’s skink. Lack of suitable micro-habitats within restoration areas, such as ground logs and coarse, woody debris piles, is likely limiting the use of these areas by Napoleon’s skinks and is likely to be the cause of their failure to remain or settle in restored sites after reintroduction. Implications Determining the habitat requirements of skinks and replicating this in restoration sites would seem the more appropriate management option than is reintroduction, and this may be the case for other reptiles and habitat specialists.

The Arabian Leopard Panthera pardus nimr conservation breeding programme

Captive breeding has the potential to play a pivotal role in conserving threatened species, among others by providing a healthy “safety net” population with which to buffer dwindling numbers in the wild. The Arabian Leopard Panthera pardus nimr is Critically Endangered on the IUCN Red List. Captive breeding is an essential component of conservation for this species. Many experts are of the opinion that the chances for survival of the Arabian Leopard in the wild are much reduced without the potential for reintroduction of animals. The captive breeding programme has been operating on a regional level since 1999, although the first Arabian Leopards registered in the studbook were caught in 1985. The current living population consists of 42 males, 32 females, and three unsexed leopards; nineteen are wild caught (of which 3 are siblings) and a substantial number of these do not actively participate in the breeding programme. The program focuses on ensuring a genetically sound population that closely resembles the wild population. Current and predicted trends within the population are compared with recommended trends and graphically illustrated using dedicated population management software, PM2000.

Movement and Spread of a Founding Population of Reintroduced Elk (Cervus elaphus) in Ontario, Canada

Monitoring the distribution and movements of a species following reintroduction can aid resource managers in assessing release‐site fidelity, rates of spread, initial project success, and feasibility of (or need for) future releases. We used radio‐telemetry to monitor an entire founding population of 70 elk (Cervus elaphus) during 16 months following their reintroduction to eastern Ontario, Canada. At the end of the study, elk were widely scattered over a 27,000 km2 area. Dispersal distances ranged from 2 to 142 km; 50% of animals moved &gt;40 km from the release site. Dispersal distances differed by time periods and age but not sex. Calves dispersed significantly shorter distances than adults and many mature elk were isolated during the rut. In contrast to a random distribution model, movements had a strongly southwestern directional bias, perhaps owing to prevailing winds from the same direction. Mortality during the study period was 27%; the primary causes of known mortalities were emaciation, collision with automobiles, and illegal shooting. During the first 11 / 2 years, lack of release‐site fidelity and high dispersal coupled with animal‐human conflicts and mortalities likely contributed to an initial lag in population growth. Resource managers planning animal reintroductions should consider using methodologies that enhance site fidelity following release.

Using DNA from museum specimens to preserve the integrity of evolutionarily significant unit boundaries in threatened species

Use of DNA from museum samples is a powerful tool to directly establish historical ESU boundaries in areas where populations of a species have been extirpated. The brush-tailed rock-wallaby ( Petrogale penicillata) has suffered extensive reductions in range and population size since European settlement in Australia. Populations of this species have been grouped into three putative evolutionarily significant units (ESUs) which were likely once contiguous along the south-east coast of Australia. However, there is currently a gap of ∼320 km between extant populations of the southern and central ESUs. Conservation plans for the brush-tailed rock-wallaby include re-introductions of animals to locations within their former range. In order to preserve the historic geographic integrity of the genetic lineages within the species, it is necessary to map the boundary between the southern ESU and central ESU to allow more informed management decisions about which lineages should be used to re-stock specific geographic locations. We have extracted DNA from samples from museum specimens that come from locations between the southernmost extant colony of the central ESU and the remaining wild colony of the southern ESU. We sequenced a 177 bp interval of the left domain of the mitochondrial DNA control region and used phylogenetic analysis to group obtained sequences with previously published sequences belonging to the three ESUs. We have extended the range of the central ESU southwards and the range of the southern ESU northwards such that the gap between the ESUs is now approximately 160 km. We recommend that, where suitable historical museum collections exist, this technique be incorporated into re-introduction plans for other threatened species.