Reinforcement Ratio Research Articles

Full robustness-based decision-making computational approach for RC structures subjected to multiple hazards

Existing RC structures show accidental loadings vulnerabilities because of inadequate design detailing causing in premature failure. The installation of a certain reinforcement measure on the susceptible structure is a common option to mitigate these fragility. At this time, reinforcement measures aided by the participation of stakeholders are crucial to combat multiple hazards. However, previous studies did not necessarily dealt with the integration multi-hazard loss, multi-uncertainty, and dependence configuration in a performance-based engineering decision-making framework, to retrofit selection from the robustness of structures perspective. In this paper, an efficient fuzzy full robustness-based decision-making framework is proposed to tackle the challenge of integration of multi-uncertainty and dependence, and further to avoid biased strategies. This framework contained Probabilistic Multi-hazards Fuzzy Global Vulnerability (PMFGV), Loss (PMFGL), and Robustness Assessment (PMFRA) for structures, by incorporating the fuzzy theory and Vine-Copula tree structure. The mentioned robustness index can be used as a reference indicator in the rehabilitation and retrofitting planning. The PMFRA-based making-decision methodology is applied to RC structures with three design schemes, which were established the platform OpenSEEsPy. Results confirm that the established assessment framework is effective in evaluating actual RC structures’ robustness. The fuzzy full robustness index for the frame S-RC, SS-RC, and RS-RC, was < 0.327, 0.421, 0.470 > , < 0.400, 0.503, 0.523 > , < 0.356, 0.453, 0.507 > , respectively. Whether the robustness-cost-based or the Cumulative Prospect Theory-based, the robustness of the reinforcement strategy with the installation of secondary beam (SS-RC) outdistance that of the additional reinforcement ratio (RS-RC). Such parameters are suggested as reasonable and meaningful making-decision index for selecting the optimal retrofitting schemes for structures subjected to multiple hazards, which leads to a balance between the enhancement of full robustness and reduction of life cost.

Application of high-strength steel fiber-reinforced concrete to reduce the use of conventional rebars in normal-strength reinforced concrete beams

This is an experimental study whose main objective was to evaluate the use of high-strength steel fiber-reinforced concrete (HSSFRC) to reduce the use of conventional reinforcements, longitudinal/transverse steel bars in normal-strength reinforced concrete beams (NSRC). To enable a detailed discussion on the theme, five prototype beams (150x300x2700 mm3) were built and load tested until failure. One of the beams contained no fibers and was used as control. It had a strength class of 30.0 MPa, and longitudinal reinforcement ratio, ρl,t, and transverse reinforcement ratio, ρw, of 0.91 and 0.11%, respectively, which are the values commonly used in practical applications. In addition to the control beam, four other HSSFRC beams, with a strength class of 60.0 MPa, were built with ρl,t = 0.39% (reduction of ≈ 60.0%, in comparison to the control beam), and ρw = 0.0% (reduction of 100.0%); fiber consumption ranged between 45.0, 60.0, 75.0 and 90.0 kg/m3. The behavior of the beams was interpreted on the basis of the load-displacement and moment-curvature relationships. These results, and the responses of the material characterization tests, showed the feasibility of designing HSSFRC beams with undoubtedly successful reductions, and mechanical behavior which was equivalent, in some cases, to that of NSRC beams.

Seismic Performance of the Bridge Piers Reinforced with PP-ECC in the Plastic Hinge Region

Ductility deficiency in reinforced concrete (RC) piers is a substantial factor contributing to earthquake damage in bridge structures. In this study, the conventional concrete in the potential plastic hinge area was substituted with polypropylene fiber-reinforced engineered cementitious composite (PP-ECC), thereby leveraging its high ductility characteristics to explore the seismic performance of RC piers strengthened by PP-ECC. A finite element model was established to discuss the reinforced height, axial compression ratio, longitudinal reinforcement ratio and stirrup ratio on the hysteresis performance by referring to a published paper with a 1/5 scale test specimen. Based on the results of the parameter analysis, an ideal set of configuration parameters was proposed. Subsequently, a full-size simplified mechanical model was established with ideal reinforcement parameters. Time-history and pushover analysis were utilized to test the seismic response. The study indicates that the two analytical methods were largely consistent. The improvement in the displacement and shear force of the strengthened pier gradually decreased with the increase in acceleration amplitude. Time-history analysis reveals a decrease in the enhancement of displacement from 82.26% to 17.98% and a reduction at the bottom reaction from 12.2% to 1.5%. Under the pushover analysis method, the retrofitting level of the top displacement decreased from 77.22% to 11.53%, whereas the improvement level of the bottom shear decreased from 9.62% to 3.69%. These results provide a theoretical basis and reference standard for the application of PP-ECC.

Mechanical behaviour of double lining with outer segmental lining and inner fibre reinforced concrete lining under internal water pressure

Double lining with outer segmental lining and inner reinforced concrete lining is extensively used for water conveyance tunnel with internal water pressure. In order to improve the performance of the double lining, the steel rebar and fibre reinforced concrete (R/FRC) is designed for inner lining to enhance the tensile strength of reinforced concrete (RC). Full-scale tests were conducted to compare the mechanical behaviour of double lining with inner RC and R/FRC linings. The test results showed that both types of lining failed in four stages: elastic stage, inner lining cracking stage, crack stabilization and segmental joint damage stage, and failure stage. The cracks firstly occurred in the inner lining near the segmental joints and then propagated to the whole inner lining ring. Finally, the crack width and segmental joint opening successively exceeded the thresholds, and the double lining failed until the breaking of segmental joints. Compared with inner RC lining, R/FRC lining had better performance in terms of the initial cracking load, cracking-control ability, post-cracking stiffness, service limit capacity of inner lining and waterproof capacity of segmental lining. The improvement ratios were 36.3%, 50.3%, 46.3%, 37.2% and 31.1%, respectively. The influences of fibre volume fraction, fibre aspect ratio, and reinforcement ratio of steel rebar on the mechanical performance of R/FRC lining were also investigated based on a previously proposed analytical model. The parametric analysis demonstrated that higher fibre volume fraction and fibre aspect ratio can result in more significant increase of mechanical performance of R/FRC lining. The steel fibres were found to have more significant effects on the post-cracking behaviour of the lining than same amounts of reinforcing bars. Finally, an optimized function was proposed to fulfil a balance of lining performance and economy. The experimental and analytical results indicated that R/FRC lining can substitute RC lining and perform higher mechanical performance in water conveyance tunnels.

Investigation of Microhardness, Microstructural, Tribological, and Thermal Properties of Al7075/TiO2/Kaoline Hybrid Metal Matrix Composites Produced by Powder Metallurgy Process

The shift from traditional, single‐component metals and alloys continues, and researchers are currently investigating alternative materials. This evolution has led to the creation of innovative materials, including hybrid metal‐matrix composites. The present study aims to investigate the microstructural, surface morphological, and thermal properties of a novel Al7075/TiO2/Kaoline hybrid metal‐matrix composite prepared using high‐energy ball milling and sintering methods. In this study, phases related to the composite components are formed depending on the milling time, no undesirable phase is formed, but the peak intensities decreas as the milling time increases. Particle size increases from 63 to 215 μm with increasing milling time. Increasing the kaoline reinforcement ratio and sintering temperature increases the microhardness from 62.27 ± 2 to 75.83 ± 2 HV, and reduces the friction coefficient from 0.82 ± 0.01 to 0.62 ± 0.01. The wear rate of the composite without kaoline addition is 2.1 (mm3 m−1) × 10−3, while with 6 wt% kaoline addition, it decreases to 1.5 (mm3 m−1) × 10−3. There are no cracks in the composite other than plastic deformation due to sintering and wear. Peaks indicating endothermic and exothermic reactions during continuous heating occurr in the 635–750 °C temperature range.

Flexural performance of UHPC two-way slab reinforced with FRP bars

The flexural behaviors of ultra-high-performance concrete (UHPC) two-way square slabs reinforced with fiber-reinforced polymer (FRP) bars were studied experimentally. Flexural tests were conducted on eight specimens, varying in reinforcement type, reinforcement ratio and confinement condition in compressive zone. Test results showed that the bridging effects of steel fibers in UHPC can mitigate the brittle characteristics of slab experiencing punching shear failure. The failure modes of slabs shifted from tensile failure to compressive failure by increasing the tensile strength of bar, leading to an improvement on the flexural capacity and ductility. The ultimate capacity of the slab with a reinforcement ratio of 1.06 % was 15.8 % greater than that of the slab with a reinforcement ratio of 0.67 %. By incorporating a layer of basalt fiber-reinforced polymer (BFRP) grid in the compressive zone to confine UHPC, the bearing capacity and ductility index of the slab increased by 17.8 % and 56.7 %, respectively. Introducing an enhancement coefficient to account for the confinement effect induced by the BFRP grid, a method was developed for predicting the flexural capacity of FRP reinforced UHPC two-way slab subjected to a local load at the mid-span, and its prediction accuracy was well verified.

Flexural behavior of bonded post-tensioned concrete beams with steel or GFRP bars

Post-tensioned concrete beams with GFRP reinforcement have gained attention in recent years due to their unique flexural behavior and potential cost benefits. Because of the absence of comprehensive guidelines in international codes and limited application in constructions, this hybrid system is adopted in the current paper as a pioneering solution for sustainable and eco-friendly construction practices. Particularly noteworthy is the corrosion resistance of GFRP bars, which significantly enhances the durability of structures. The influence of using GFRP with bonded post-tension concrete beam is experimentally investigated compared to concrete beams with prestressing and non-prestressing reinforcement. Eight concrete beams with different reinforcement types and ratios were cast and tested under three-point load. Flexural resistance, crack pattern, deflections, and strains of the beams were compared with a reference beam with prestressing and non-prestressing reinforcement. Experimental load capacities of the tested beams were compared to those obtained from various international codes. The experimental results revealed that the beams with GFRP bars had smaller failure load and larger deflection compared to those with non-prestressing steel by up to 25 % and 37 %, respectively. A 3D finite element model (FEM) was developed and validated by comparing the numerical results with those obtained from the experiments. A sensitivity analysis was performed, using the validated FEM, by changing the concrete strength, steel yield stress, and GFRP ultimate strength by ± 20 %. The sensitivity analysis included seventy-two beams which had the same dimensions, loading, and boundary conditions of the tested beams. Changing the concrete strength only led to varying the beam capacities by −7 % ∼ + 4 %. Changing the steel yield stress only led to changing of the beam capacities by −13 % ∼ + 11 %. No change was observed when the GFRP ultimate stress was varied by 20 %.

Influence of processing variables on fabrication of AA7475/B4C/Al2O3 hybrid surface composites via FSP

The motive of this research is to fabricate AA7475/B4C/Al2O3 hybrid surface composites (HSCs) using friction stir processing (FSP) for various applications in aerospace, marine, and automotive industries. The research systematically varied key processing variables, including rotational speed (900–1300 rpm), feed rate (30–60 mm/min), and reinforcement ratios (from 30% B4C and 70% Al2O3 to 70% B4C and 30% Al2O3), to optimize responses such as ultimate tensile strength (UTS), tensile elongation (TE), and microhardness (MH). A face-centered central composite design (FCCCD) of response surface methodology (RSM) was employed to develop mathematical models correlating the input parameters with the response variables. An analysis of variance (ANOVA) was conducted to assess the effects and interactions of the processing parameters on the composite properties. A validation test confirmed the reliability of these optimal conditions. ANOVA results indicated that the tool rotational speeds had the most significant effect on the tensile, ductility, and hardness properties of the HSCs. However, changes in feed rate and reinforcement ratio had minimal impact on these properties. The study identified optimal conditions for different responses: UTS of 452.62 MPa, TE of 6.89%, and MH of 168.52 HV at a rotational speed of 1300 rpm, feed rate of 45 mm/min, and a 50:50% reinforcement ratio (50% B4C and 50% Al2O3). The HSCs fabricated at 1300 rpm, 45 mm/min, and a 50:50% reinforcement ratio exhibited significant necking before failure, leading to a ductile failure mode.

Nonlinear Finite Element analysis of concrete corbels with hybrid reinforcements

This study utilizes nonlinear finite element analysis to simulate the structural response of Reinforced Concrete (RC) corbels with hybrid reinforcements under monotonic loading. The models implemented in ABAQUS examine RC corbels with combined Carbon Fiber Reinforced Polymer (CFRP) and steel reinforcing bars to study the interaction between the concrete and hybrid reinforcement system. Specifically Ultimate load capacity, energy absorption and failure mode. Compressive strength, shear span/depth ratio, and the ratio of CFRP/steel reinforcement were the main parameters that considered in this paper. Results demonstrated a significant improvement in the ultimate load capacity of concrete corbels by up to 53% when both conventional steel and CFRP bars were integrated within the concrete corbel. The numerical test outcomes revealed that an increased hybrid reinforcement ratio effectively managed crack distribution, resulting in reduced concrete crack widths.

Experimental, Numerical, and Analytical Investigation of the Reinforced Concrete Hidden and Wide Beams

AbstractThis research presents an experimental, analytical, and numerical study to predict the flexural behavior of reinforced concrete hidden and wide beams embedded in slabs. The experimentally studied parameters of testing eight specimens include beam depth, beam width, and beam eccentricity from the column. The obtained test results were compared to the predictions of finite element analysis using the ANSYS program. A numerical parametric study was conducted by the ANSYS program to explore other parameters affecting the ultimate flexural strength of beams. The studied parameters encompass concrete compressive strength, steel reinforcement strength, bottom reinforcement ratio, top-to-bottom reinforcement ratio, and web reinforcement ratio. The results revealed that an increase in beam depth led to higher ultimate load and secant stiffness, along with a decrease in deflection. The increase in beam width significantly affected beam depth, resulting in increased ultimate load and secant stiffness and a slight decrease in deflection. The increase in beam eccentricity from the column resulted in a decrease in ultimate load and secant stiffness while increasing the deflection. Comparisons between experimental and numerical results were made against calculations based on the ECP 203-2017 and ACI 318-19 codes, and the comparison yielded satisfactory results.

Flexural behaviour of BFRP grid/bar reinforced UHPC beams and slabs

This study investigates the integration of Basalt Fiber Reinforced Polymer (BFRP) and Ultra-High Performance Concrete (UHPC), which exhibit significant potential for a durable and sustainable solution in marine and offshore infrastructure. An experimental program of BFRP grid/bar-reinforced UHPC beams and slabs subjected to four-point bending is presented. A total of nine beams and ten slabs were prepared and tested to investigate the effect of BFRP reinforcement ratio (0 %–3.33 %), type of reinforcement (grid and bar), and steel fiber content of UHPC (0 %, 1 %, 2 % and 3 %). The results revealed that the inclusion of BFRP reinforcement, even at a small reinforcement ratio, is feasible to enhance structural ductility due to the large rupture strain and superior strength characteristics of BFRP material. Moreover, the steel fibers played a crucial role in preventing shear failures of UHPC and creep failures of BFRP reinforcement. Within a range of 0–2 %, the steel fiber content not only benefited the load-resistance and deformation capacity but also effectively improved the cracking load. However, high fiber content (3 %) had a minimal contribution to load-bearing capacity and negatively affected ductility. A theoretical model based on the deflection method was employed to forecast the general behaviour of the flexural members. Comparisons between experimental results and numerical predictions confirm its accuracy.

Preliminary Study on the Bending Behavior of Solid Timber Beams Reinforced with Basalt Fiber-Reinforced Polymer Bars

The purpose of this work is to test the effectiveness of strengthening timber structures by means of composite bars. This article presents the results of preliminary tests carried out on solid beams made of fir wood. The test specimens, which are classified as strength class C24, had dimensions of 7 × 17 × 330 cm. Beams were reinforced with 8 mm diameter basalt fiber-reinforced polymer (BFRP) bars. The bars were glued into grooved channels along the bottom surface. Epoxy resin was used as an adhesive. The strength tests were conducted in accordance with the requirements of EN 408+A1:2012. The four-point bending scheme was adopted. The tests were conducted in the following two series: unreinforced beams (A) and beams reinforced with composites (B). Five elements were tested in each series. The reinforcement resulted in an average increase in the bending moment value of 8.41%. The deflection value at failure increased by 19.77%. The work also includes an analysis of the failure mode and a ductility analysis. Further tests should be carried out using a higher reinforcement ratio. A higher reinforcement ratio should make the presented reinforcement configuration more effective.

Numerical Study on the Retrofitting of Exterior RC Beam-column Joints with CFRP Composites Using the Grooving Method

Retrofitting seismically deficient beam-column joints (BCJs) in reinforced concrete (RC) structures is crucial to preventing collapse during high-intensity earthquakes. Fiber reinforced polymer (FRP) composites have proven effective for retrofitting these components, but debonding of the FRP from concrete surfaces remains a challenge. Recently, the grooving method (GM) has emerged as a promising solution to mitigate this issue, enhancing the bond between FRP and concrete. This paper presents a numerical investigation of BCJs retrofitted with FRP composites using the GM, focusing on various design parameters. The study utilized finite element models developed in ABAQUS, incorporating the concrete damage plasticity (CDP) model to simulate the nonlinear behavior of concrete. The interface between the concrete and FRP was modeled as a perfect bond, simulating the strong adhesion provided by the GM. The numerical results were validated against experimental data from two BCJ specimens, showing good agreement in terms of load-displacement behavior, peak loads, and failure modes. Key parameters studied include the beam longitudinal reinforcement ratio, column axial load ratio, and joint aspect ratio. The findings reveal that these parameters significantly affect the shear capacity of retrofitted joints, impacting the efficiency of the retrofitting.

Dynamic response of pile–slab retaining wall structure under rockfall impact

Abstract. Pile–slab retaining walls, as innovative rockfall protection structures, have been extensively utilized in the western mountainous regions of China. With their characteristics of a small footprint, high interception height, and ease of construction, these structures demonstrate promising potential for application in mountainous regions worldwide, such as the Himalayas, Andes, and Alps. However, their dynamic response upon impact and impact resistance energy remain ambiguous due to the intricate composite nature of the structures. To elucidate this, an exhaustive dynamic analysis of a four-span pile–slab retaining wall with a cantilever section of 6 m under various impact scenarios was conducted utilizing the finite-element numerical simulation method. The rationality of the selected material constitutive models and the numerical algorithm was validated by reproducing two physical model tests. The simulation results reveal the following. (1) The lateral displacement of the pile at the ground surface and the concrete damage under the pile at the impact center are greater than those under the slab at the impact center, implying that the impact location has a significant influence on the stability of the structure. (2) There is a positive correlation between the response indexes (impact force, interaction force, lateral deformation of pile and slab, concrete damage) and the impact velocities. (3) The rockfall peak impact force, the ratio of the peak impact force to the peak interaction force, and lateral displacement of the pile at the ground surface had strong linear relationships with rockfall energy. (4) Relative to the bending moment, shear force, and damage degree, the lateral displacement of the pile at the ground surface is the first to reach its limit value. Taking the lateral displacement of the pile at the ground surface as the controlling factor, the estimated maximum impact energy that the pile–slab retaining wall can withstand is 905 kJ in this study when the structure top is taken as the impact point. In cases where the impact energy of falling rocks exceeds 905 kJ, it is recommended to optimize the mechanical properties of the cushion layer, improve the elastic modulus of concrete, increase the reinforcement ratio of longitudinal tension bars, enlarge the section size of piles at ground level, or add anchoring measures to enhance the bending resistance of the retaining structure.

Negative bending behavior of prestressed hollow core slab with cast-in-place RC layer in the RC beam-slab joint area

To study the negative bending behavior of the prestressed hollow core slab (HCS) with cast-in-place (CIP) RC layer (HCSPR) in the beam-slab joint area, eight full-scale tests were conducted, covering the following parameters: support length (S), longitudinal reinforcement ratio (ρr), HCS height (h1), and CIP concrete layer height (h2). The mechanical properties of specimens were evaluated including load-deflection relationship, cracking behavior, and strain development. Two distinct failure modes of flexure and shear were observed. An extensive parametric study was also conducted to study the effects of h2, h1, prestressing degree, ρr, and span on negative bending performance. The results from the tests and parametric study indicate that h1, ρr, and h2 significantly affect the failure modes, bearing capacity, and ductility. To ensure robustness, S values no less than 30 mm are recommended for the connection between HCS and RC beam. Moreover, to avoid shear failure of HCS with CIP RC layer (HCSPR) in the joint area under negative moment, the shear span-to-depth ratio [L0/(h1 +h2)] should be restricted to be larger than 4. Lastly, both flexural and shear capacity formulas based on GB50010, EN1168, and ACI318 were compared. The calculated results were compared with the test and parametric analysis results. This research is of great significance for the application of simplified RC beam-HCS connection.

On the ductility of RC beam section: A revision and up to date of conclusions

In the context of reinforced concrete (RC) structures, standards aim to relate the ductility of these structures to the ductility of the steels used in their construction. Among other requirements, EC8 requires the use of special ductility steels to achieve high ductility in structures. After reviewing the relevant literature, this study aims to evaluate the impact of various parameters on the ductility at the cross-section level of RC elements subjected to bending. The study concludes that there is no consensus on the assessment of ductility, nor a standardized framework for the various alternatives. Additionally: i) Some contradictions exist regarding the impact of fundamental parameters on the assessment of ductility; ii) A one-size-fits-all methodology is impractical given the diverse factors influencing ductility in RC elements. It is proposed to consider the ductility of RC element sections as a function of the mechanical ratio of tensioned reinforcement. A proposal is also made to enhance the ductility of cross-sections without significantly increasing their strength: by increasing the width of the section while keeping other parameters unchanged.

Finite element analysis of ductility and flexural capacity of FRP and steel bars hybrid reinforced concrete beams

AbstractTo study the flexural behavior of hybrid reinforced concrete (hybrid‐RC) beams with FRP and steel bars, this paper used ABAQUS finite element (FE) software to model and nonlinear analyze the hybrid‐RC beams and investigate the effects of effective reinforcement ratio, concrete strength, and FRP bars type on the flexural behavior of hybrid‐RC beams. In addition, the FRP bars stress, flexural bearing capacity, and ductility formulas for hybrid‐RC beams were fitted based on the FE results, and existing literature data were used to verify their accuracy. The FE model results indicated that the effective reinforcement ratio, FRP bars type, and concrete strength significantly impacted the flexural bearing capacity and deformation performance of hybrid‐RC beams. Increasing the strength of concrete improved the flexural bearing capacity and ductility of hybrid‐RC beams; increasing the effective reinforcement ratio and the elastic modulus of FRP bars increased the flexural bearing capacity of the hybrid‐RC beams but decreased its ductility. In addition, the fitted FRP bars stress, flexural bearing capacity, and ductility calculation formulas can quickly and conveniently predict the flexural bearing capacity and ductility of hybrid‐RC beams.

Influence of web reinforcement on shear behavior and size effect of lightweight aggregate concrete deep beams: Experimental and theoretical studies

In practice, deep beams with web reinforcement are the predominant form of deep beams. Understanding the effect of web reinforcement in deep beams made of lightweight aggregate concrete (LWAC) is essential for the structural application of LWAC deep beams, but it is still a pending subject. In this study, eight LWAC deep beams and two normal weight concrete deep beams were tested to investigate the influence of web reinforcement and beam depth on the shear behavior and size effect of LWAC deep beams. The experimental results showed that all deep beams failed in shear–compression mode, which is independent of the web reinforcement ratio and beam depth. The web reinforcement confined the concrete within the strut area and limited the concrete spalling, which positively affected the normalized serviceability/ultimate shear strength. Moreover, web reinforcement effectively mitigated the size effect by resisting the transverse tensile stress and improving the boundary confinement of the concrete struts, but could not eliminate the size effect in LWAC deep beams. Based on these results, a modified strut-and-tie model (MSTM) was developed to quantify the contribution of web reinforcements to the shear capacity more accurately than the conventional strut-and-tie model. The predictions obtained using the MSTM with the Warwick-Foster’s strut efficiency factor were in excellent agreement with the experimental results.

Bending Performance of Reinforced Concrete Beams with Rubber as Form of Fiber from Waste Tires

An investigation was conducted to assess the efficacy of using waste rubber as a substitute for a portion of an aggregate to enhance concrete’s sustainability. For the purpose of accomplishing this objective, a total of 12 specimens were constructed and then subjected to a series of tests to investigate their bending behavior. The samples were constructed with the following dimensions: 1000 mm length and a 100 mm by 150 mm cross-sectional area. A few factors were selected, including the impacts of the longitudinal reinforcement ratio and the waste rubber ratio. Based on the volume of aggregates, rubber replacement rates of 0%, 5%, 10%, and 15% were investigated in this study. To assess the beam bending behavior, the stirrup width and spacing were kept constant at ∅6/10. The longitudinal reinforcement was composed of three diameters: ∅6 at the top (for all beams) and ∅8, ∅10, and ∅12 at the bottom. The experimental results demonstrated that the effects of varying amounts of waste rubber and tension reinforcement on the bending and cracking of reinforced concrete beams (RCBs) were varied. The findings indicate that the incorporation of waste rubber into concrete results in a reduction in both the load-carrying capacity and the level of deformation of the material. Additionally, it was shown that as the amount of waste rubber in the RCB increased, the energy absorption capacity and ultimate load decreased. There was a reduction in energy dissipation of 53.71%, 51.69%, and 40.55% for ∅8 when longitudinal reinforcement was applied at 5%, 10%, and 15% replacement, respectively. Additionally, there were reductions of 25.35%, 9.31%, and 58.15% for ∅10, and 38.69%, 57.79%, and 62.44% for ∅12, respectively.

Evaluation, tribological examination, and multi‐objective optimization of aluminum‐fly ash‐egg shell composites for sustainability

AbstractThis study addresses the technological challenge of enhancing the mechanical and tribological properties of Al 6082 alloy by incorporating fly ash (FA) and eggshell (ES) as reinforcing materials. The objective is to fabricate hybrid metal matrix composites using sand casting, with varying weight percentages of eggshell and fly ash: 4 wt% eggshell with 6 wt% fly ash, 5 wt% eggshell with 5 wt% fly ash, and 6 wt% eggshell with 4 wt% fly ash. The experimental methodology involved designing experiments with response surface methodology (RSM), considering applied load, sliding velocity, and sliding distance as variables. The outcomes showed that the composite with 6 wt% eggshell and 4 wt% fly ash exhibited superior hardness, tensile strength, and impact resistance compared to pure Al 6082 and other composite variations. Additionally, this composite reduced the coefficient of friction (COF) from 0.489 for the base Al 6082 to 0.265. ANOVA based on RSM identified sliding distance as the most influential factor affecting COF. Optimal conditions for minimizing COF were determined to be a 40 N load, 0.215 m/s sliding velocity, and 800 m sliding distance through confirmatory trials. Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) analysis of the worn surfaces provided further insights into the wear mechanisms. The research reveals that integrating the addition of eggshell and fly ash significantly enhances the mechanical properties and reduces the friction of Al 6082, with sliding distance being a critical factor in tribological performance. This investigation is distinctive due to its innovative use of dual reinforcement with fly ash and eggshell, which are abundant, cost‐effective, and rarely employed together in this context. The research thoroughly investigates various reinforcement ratios, providing vital insights into how they affect the composite's properties, particularly in terms of improving tribological properties. Using RSM and ANOVA makes the findings more precise and reliable. The investigation highlights sliding distance as the key factor affecting the tribological behavior of the composites.