Reindeer Meat Research Articles

Level of selected toxic elements in meat, liver, tallow and bone marrow of young semi-domesticated reindeer (Rangifer tarandus tarandus L.) from Northern Norway

Objectives. To gain knowledge on toxic elements in semi-domesticated reindeer and their distribution in meat, liver, tallow and bone marrow. The correlations between concentrations in meat and liver, as well as the use of the latter as an indicator for toxic elements in meat, were also investigated.Study design. Cross-sectional study on population of semi-domesticated reindeer from 2 northern Norwegian counties (Finnmark and Nordland).Methods. Semi-domesticated reindeer carcasses (n = 31) were randomly selected, from which meat, liver, tallow and bone marrow samples were collected. Selected toxic elements (cadmium, lead, arsenic, nickel and vanadium) were studied.Results. Liver was the organ with the highest level of all elements except for nickel, which was highest in bone marrow. Meat had the lowest levels, whereas levels in tallow and bone marrow were between those of meat and liver. Concentrations of cadmium, lead and arsenic were significantly different (p < 0.05) between meat and liver, while only arsenic and cadmium were significantly correlated in meat (rs=0.71, p < 0.01) and liver (rs=0.72, p < 0.01). The cadmium level exceeded the European Commission's (EC) maximum level set for bovine meat and live in 52% of the liver samples (n = 29). Nevertheless, the estimated monthly cadmium intake from liver of 2.29 µg/kg body weight was well below the provisional tolerable monthly intake of 25 µg/kg body weight set by the FAO/WHO Joint Expert Committee on Food Additives.Conclusions. Based on the measured levels and their relation to the maximum level and to the provisional tolerable weekly/monthly intake limits, it could be inferred that consumption of reindeer meat is not associated with any health risk related to the studied toxic elements for consumers.

Does carcass suspension technique influence reindeer (Rangifer tarandus tarandus) meat quality attributes?

In total, eight reindeer steers (ages 3–6 years old) were used in the study to evaluate the effects of carcass suspension technique on meat tenderness, colour and water-holding capacity (WHC). Carcasses were split along the spine and sides were randomly allocated to pelvic suspension (hung using a butcher hook through the obturator foramen) or normal Achilles tendon suspension (control treatment). From all 16 carcass halves, meat samples were collected from the loin (M. longissimus), inside (M. semimembranosus) and shoulder (M. triceps brachii) for sensory evaluation and measurements of shear force (tenderness). Loin samples were also evaluated for meat colour at 1 day after slaughter and for purge (WHC) after vacuum-packaged chilled storage (+2°C) for 1, 2 and 3 weeks. No significant effects of carcass suspension technique were found for reindeer meat colour and WHC (purge). Shear force values for loin samples from pelvic-suspended carcasses were significantly (P = 0.001) lower than those from Achilles tendon-suspended carcasses, and there was a similar trend for inside samples, although this was not significant (P = 0.06). There was no effect of carcass suspension technique for shear force values of the shoulder samples. The trained panel judged loin and inside samples from pelvic-suspended carcasses to be more tender (P ≤ 0.001) while no effect of carcass suspension technique on tenderness was found in the shoulder samples. Juiciness was not affected by carcass suspension. The present study demonstrated that pelvic suspension improved tenderness in the most valuable cuts from the reindeer carcass (loin and inside).

Natural variation in 210Po and 210Pb activity concentrations in the urine of Finnish population groups

A study to determine activity concentrations of (210)Pb and (210)Po in the urine of certain Finnish population groups was conducted, to investigate the variation in natural background level of urinary excretion. The study participants were divided into three groups mainly based on their diet. The first group comprised recreational fishermen and the second group represented people consuming more reindeer meat than an average Finn, while people using drinking water with very high activity concentrations of (210)Po were selected for the third group. The fourth group was a control group. The mean urinary excretion of (210)Po in groups 1 and 2 was 73 and 100 mBq d(-1), respectively. These values were higher than the value of the control group (20 mBq d(-1)) and the mean values reported in the literature. The mean daily urinary excretion of (210)Pb in groups 1 and 2, 70 and 52 mBq d(-1), was also slightly higher than that in the control group (32 mBq d(-1)). In contrast, the excretion rates of both (210)Po and (210)Pb for the members of group 3 were one to two orders of magnitude higher than those reported in the literature. This was clearly due to the elevated levels of natural radionuclides in their drinking water. The present study demonstrates the importance of possessing good knowledge of the background levels, in order to allow the determination of the additional exposure due, for example, to the malevolent use of radiation.

Radiation Protection—Sorting Out the Arguments

This is a response to an article by Wade Allison in which he argues that we should accept drastically higher doses of ionizing radiation than what we currently do (Philosophy and Technology 24:193–195, 2011). He employs four arguments in defence of his position: comparisons with background radiation, the positive experiences of radiotherapy, the presence of biological defence mechanisms against radiation, and a concession by Swedish authorities that their approach to reindeer meat after the Chernobyl fallout was unnecessarily strict. It is shown that each of the four arguments is fallacious. In conclusion, the traditional weighing of risks against benefits in radiation protection is defended.

Antioxidant and other quality properties of reindeer muscle from two different Norwegian regions

The effects of origin, gender, age, and muscle type on chemical composition, colour, antioxidant status and sensory profile of reindeer muscles Longissimus dorsi (LD) and Semimembranosus (SM) from two production regions were investigated. For some variables, the comparison between reindeer and beef muscles was also included. Muscles from North Norway (NN) were darker and contained more myoglobin and moisture, and less protein and fat than muscles from Mid Norway (MN). Oxygen radical absorbance capacity (ORAC) was significantly higher in these muscles while the levels of antioxidant enzymes were significantly lower in contrast to MN muscles. Relative to male reindeer, muscles from females contained significantly more total phenols and showed higher antiradical power (ARP). Carcass weight and the sensory attributes colour, sharp and bitter flavour had higher scores for older animals. Considerable differences between LD and SM were revealed in sensory assessment. In comparison to beef reindeer meat was darker, had more myoglobin, total phenols, antioxidant enzymes, and higher ARP and ORAC values.

Animating rituals at Sámi sacred sites in northern Finland

This article concentrates on the performative nature of rituals at Sámi sacred sites called sieidi in northern Finland. These sites are usually natural objects, such as stones, unshaped by humans. Offerings, such as reindeer antlers, crania, meat, metal, and alcohol, were made to the sieidi in order to ensure future hunting success. In this article, the concept of ritual as performative action is used as a tool to emphasize how practices, senses, and emotions comprised different parts of the rituals that took place at sieidi sites. Understanding ritual as performative action helps us to animate the rituals at sieidi sites with other people, animals, sounds, smells, movements, and feelings. We also seek to re-evaluate the context-related nature of the rituals. Finally, we discuss the implications for the interpretation of such sites where there are no material traces of offerings.

EFFECTIVE HALF-LIVES OF 134Cs AND 137Cs IN REINDEER MEAT AND IN REINDEER HERDERS IN FINLAND AFTER THE CHERNOBYL ACCIDENT AND THE ENSUING EFFECTIVE RADIATION DOSES TO HUMANS

Monitoring of 137Cs in reindeer herders and in reindeer meat in Finnish Lapland began in the early 1960s and has continued until today. The monitoring of 137Cs in reindeer herders and in reindeer meat in the Halla area began after the Chernobyl accident. In this study, reindeer herders together with reindeer meat samples were monitored for gamma-emitting radionuclides from two separate areas in the Finnish reindeer management area, Northern Finland and the Halla area. The effective half-lives determined for 137Cs in reindeer meat were from 3.0 ± 1.7 to 5.1 ± 0.5 y. For 134Cs, the observed effective half-lives in reindeer meat were from 1.3 ± 0.2 to 1.5 ± 0.1 y. The effective half-lives among male and female reindeer herders in Northern Finland were 5.5 ± 1.3 and 4.4 ± 0.9 y, respectively, for the body-burden of 137Cs. In the Halla reindeer herding cooperative, located to the south of Finnish Lapland in the province of Kuusamo, the effective half-lives in the reindeer herders were shorter, about 1-2 y. The 134Cs × 137Cs-1 ratios decreased more rapidly in reindeer meat and also in humans in the Halla area than in Northern Finland. This implies faster removal of Chernobyl-derived cesium from the reindeer-man food chain in the Halla area. The contribution of Chernobyl fallout (percent) in reindeer meat was 70% and 80% in the Paistunturi and Ivalo cooperatives, respectively, and 50% and 80% in the western and eastern part of Halla cooperative, respectively. In humans, the contribution of Chernobyl fallout to 137Cs in whole-body content was 60% in Northern Finland and 80% in the Halla area. The mean committed effective doses of Cs for reindeer herders in Finnish Lapland decreased from 0.36 mSv y-1 in 1987 to 0.053 mSv y-1 in 2005.

Concentrations of 137Cs in summer pasture plants that reindeer feed on in the reindeer management area of Finland

Samples of summer pasture plants that reindeer feed on were collected in order to study 137Cs concentrations in different plant species and in species nested in certain site types, and to study the regional distribution of 137Cs in the Finnish reindeer management area. Plant species were categorized by the site types of mineral soil forest (xeric heath forest and mesic heath forest) and peatland. A third category called ’other plant species’ included plants with various site types, poorly determined species and species with poor statistics. The 137Cs concentrations in different site types differed significantly. The mean 137Cs concentrations of the whole reindeer management area in the xeric heath forest plant species was 44 ± 27 Bq/kg dw, in the mesic heath forest plant species 75 ± 59 Bq/kg dw and in the peatland plant species 219 ± 150 Bq/kg dw. The peatland species uptake 137Cs more efficiently than plant species of mineral soil forests. A particularly efficient collector of 137Cs was Trichophorum sp. It is suggested that Trichophorum sp. could be used as an indicator species for reindeer summer fodder plants. The highest concentrations of 137Cs were found in Southern Lapland and the lowest in Northern Lapland. Today, the concentrations of 137Cs in summer pasture plants that reindeer feed on in Finland are at such a level that there is no need to avoid any plant species. In the case of future nuclear fallout, reindeer grazing in peatlands would increase concentrations of 137Cs in reindeer meat.

Microbiological shelf life of fresh, chilled reindeer meat (M. longissimus dorsi)

In this pilot study loin muscles (M. longissimus dorsi) from six reindeer calves (aged 4 months) were used to determine shelf life of fresh, chilled reindeer meat stored at +4 °C, measured as microbiological quality (aerobic microorganisms and Escherichia coli). The loins were collected at boning 3 days post slaughter and divided in five pieces that were randomly assigned to five different storage times; sampling directly after packaging and after chilled storage for 2, 3, 4 and 5 weeks at +4 °C. Samples were vacuum packaged and transported chilled to Hjortens Laboratory in Östersund, Sweden (accredited by SWEDAC according to SS-EN ISO/IEC 17025:2005 for food analysis) where the storage, microbiological sampling and analysis took place according to the protocols of Nordic Committee on Food Analysis (NMKL). The total amount of aerobic microorganisms at the first sampling directly after packaging (three days post slaughter) was 3.4 ± 0.3 log10 CFU/g. After two and three weeks of vacuum packaged chilled storage at +4°C the microbiological quality of the samples was on the border-line to poor (6.8 ± 0.3 log10 CFU/g). At four and five weeks of chilled storage the levels of aerobic microorganisms were significantly highest (P≤0.05) and the limit for acceptable quality of 7 log10 CFU/g aerobic bacteria had been passed (7.3 ± 0.3 log10 CFU/g and 7.8 ± 0.3 log10 CFU/g, respectively). Very few of the reindeer meat samples were contaminated with Escherichia coli bacteria. The results from the present pilot study suggest that storage time for vacuum packaged fresh, chilled reindeer meat should not exceed 3 weeks at a temperature of +4 °C.

Diet and lifestyle of the Sami of southern Lapland in the 1930s–1950s and today

Objectives. To describe the lifestyle of the Sami of southern Lapland 50 to 70 years ago in relation to the present-day Sami and non-Sami populations and, thereby, to provide a basis for future studies of culturally related determinants of health and illness.Study design. A qualitative analysis, and a quantitative comparison of Sami and non-Sami groups.Methods. Semi-structured interviews were conducted with 20 elderly Sami concerning their parents’ lifestyle and diet 50 to 70 years ago. Questionnaire data from 81 reindeer-herding Sami, 226 non-reindeer-herding Sami and 1,842 sex-, age-and geographically matched non-Sami from the population-based Västerbotten Intervention Project were analysed by non-parametric tests and partial least squares methodology.Results. Surprisingly, fatty fish may have been more important than reindeer meat for the Sami of southern Lapland in the 1930s to 1950s, and it is still consumed more frequently by reindeer-herding Sami than nonreindeer-herding Sami and non-Sami. Other dietary characteristics of the historical Sami and present-day reindeer-herding Sami were higher intakes of fat, blood and boiled coffee, and lower intakes of bread, fibre and cultivated vegetables, compared with present-day non-Sami. Physical activity was also a part of the daily life of the Sami to a greater extent in the 1930s to 1950s than today. Sami men often worked far from home, while the women were responsible for fishing, farming, gardening (which was introduced in the 1930–1950 period), as well as housework and childcare.Conclusions. For studies investigating characteristic lifestyle elements of specific ethnic groups, the elements of greatest acknowledged cultural importance today (in this case reindeer meat) may not be of the most objective importance traditionally.

Iron stores in relation to dietary patterns in a multiethnic population: the SAMINOR study

We evaluated the association between serum ferritin (s-ferritin), transferrin saturation and dietary patterns, in connection with ethnicity, geographical settlement and lifestyle factors. In 2003-2004, a cross-sectional study of health and living conditions was carried out in northern Norway. A questionnaire explored, among other factors, ethnicity and food consumption habits. Principal component analysis was used to assess the association between variables. Seven principal components were then used as input to a cluster analysis. To characterise food consumptions, five dietary patterns were identified and used to assess the effect of food consumption habits on Fe stores. A total of 16 323 men and women between the ages of 36 and 79 years participated. Participants who frequently consumed reindeer meat had higher levels of s-ferritin (P < 0.0001) than did individuals with other dietary patterns. This pattern was highly represented by subjects with three generations of Sami language (Sami I). Further, mean transferrin saturation in the reindeer group was higher compared with the other dietary clusters for men (P < 0.04) and women (P < 0.02). However, the reindeer pattern individuals also had the highest proportion of subjects with overweight and obesity. Obesity was positively associated with s-ferritin in both men and women (P < 0.0001). The differences in Fe status described earlier between inland Sami and non-Sami can be explained by several factors such as food habits, age and obesity. High level of s-ferritin may reflect high intake of reindeer meat. Being overweight and obese is also associated with s-ferritin levels.

Radiation doses from global fallout and cancer incidence among reindeer herders and Sami in Northern Finland

ObjectivesPeople in the Arctic regions are one of the most heavily exposed population from the global fallout from atmospheric atomic bomb testing of the 1950s and 1960s due to their...

Polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins, dibenzofurans, and polychlorinated biphenyls in semi-domesticated reindeer (Rangifer tarandus tarandus) and wild moose (Alces alces) meat in Finland

Semi-domesticated reindeer and wild moose meat samples were analyzed for polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins and dibenzofurans (PCDD/Fs), and polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs). Both calves and adults were studied. Individual reindeer and moose meat samples and pooled reindeer calf meat samples were collected from the northern, the middle, and the southern reindeer herding regions in Finland. Samples represented the edible parts of carcasses.In individual samples of reindeer the fat based WHO–PCDD/F–PCB–TEQ concentration was on average 3.2pgg−1 in calves and 2.3pgg−1 in adults. In moose calves the fat based WHO–PCDD/F–PCB–TEQ concentration (1.9pgg−1) was lower than in reindeer calves. WHO–PCDD/F–PCB–TEQ concentration in the adult moose samples was equal as in the adult reindeer samples.The mean fat based WHO–PCDD/F–PCB–TEQ concentration was highest in reindeer calf samples from the middle region. These samples contained also the highest content of fat. Individual samples of reindeer contained on average more WHO–PCB–TEQ than WHO–PCDD/F–TEQ, while the opposite was true for moose samples, and also samples of adult reindeer from the southern area. The contributions of PCDD/Fs and PCBs to the total TEQ were similar in the reindeer calves’ pooled samples which were collected from more western regions than individual samples.

Deposition of gamma emitters from Chernobyl accident and their transfer in lichen–soil columns

Lichen–soil column samples were taken from several locations in the Southern Finland between 1986 and 2006. Columns were divided into three parts, upper lichen, lower lichen and underlying soil, and their gamma emitting radionuclides, 134Cs, 137Cs, 103Ru, 95Zr, 106Ru, 110mAg, 125Sb and 144Ce, were measured with gamma spectrometry. Deposition values were calculated as Bq/m 2 for each sampling site. Distribution of various radionuclides in the three compartments as a function of time was determined. Both effective and ecological half-lives of all radionuclides were calculated for upper lichen, whole lichen and whole lichen–soil column. A linear relation was derived between the physical half-lives and effective half-lives for whole lichen and for whole lichen–soil column. Reindeer meat activity concentrations of various radionuclides and ensuing radiation doses to reindeer-herding people were also estimated for a hypothetical case where a similar high radioactive pollution, as was taken place in the Southern Finland, would have occurred in the reindeer-herding areas in the Finnish Lapland.

Mortality of the Sami in northern Finland 1979–2005

OBJECTIVES: To describe the mortality of the Finnish Sami population. Study design. A cohort study. The Sami population living in northern Finland represents a specific genetic background and a way of life that has been different from other Finns.METHODS: A cohort of all 2091 Sami and 4,161 non-Sami people from the 2 northernmost municipalities of Finland on 31 December 1978 was identified from the National Population Register and followed up for their mortality during 1979–2005.RESULTS: Altogether 625 Sami died during 1979–2005, while the expected number based on the average mortality rates in the entire Finnish population was 633. The standardized mortality ratio (SMR) of the Sami population was 0.99 (95% confidence interval 0.91-1.06), and for the non-Sami 1.07 (1.00-1.14). The mortality from accidents and violence was elevated both among the Sami, SMR 1.67 (1.32-2.08), and among the non-Sami, 1.28 (1.04-1.53). Snowmobile and water transport accidents were especially common. SMR for disease mortality among the Sami men was 0.88 (0.78-0.98). Half of the decrease was attributable to the low mortality from cancer, SMR 0.69 (0.52-0.90). SMR for circulatory diseases was very similar. The SMRs for dementia and Alzheimer’s disease were elevated among the Sami men.CONCLUSIONS: The Sami men had a lower disease mortality as compared with the Finnish population generally and their non-Sami neighbours, although their life habits would suggest a higher mortality rate. Reasons for their lower mortality may be related to their diet that is rich in reindeer meat and fish, their physically active way of life or their genetic background.

Childhood diet in relation to Sámi and Norwegian ethnicity in northern and mid-Norway – the SAMINOR study

The purpose of this work was to identify dietary patterns in the past using cluster analysis of reported diet in childhood, and to assess predictors for dietary patterns in relation to ethnicity in the population in the Sámi core areas in Norway. The Sámis are an indigenous population living in the border areas of Norway, Sweden, Finland and Russia. Population-based, cross-sectional study, using self-administered questionnaires. A food-frequency questionnaire covering selected food items eaten in childhood was used. The questionnaire also provided data on ethnicity. This study was based on data collected from 7614 subjects participating in The Population Based Study of Health and Living Conditions in Areas with a Mixed Sámi and Norwegian Population (the SAMINOR study) who grew up in the SAMINOR geographical areas, i.e. areas with mixed Sámi and Norwegian populations in Norway. Four dietary clusters were identified: a reindeer meat cluster; a cluster with high intakes of fish, traditional fish products and mutton, in addition to food sources from the local environment; a Westernised food cluster with high intakes of meat balls and sausages; and a cluster with a high intake of fish, but not any other foods in the questionnaire. The cluster distribution differed by ethnicity, but the effect of ethnicity on diet differed by coastal and inland residence. Our study has shown that data gathered through the limited questionnaire could be used to group the study sample into different dietary clusters, which we believe will be useful for further research on relationships between diet in childhood and health in the Sámi core areas in Norway.

Polonium‐210 in news: an allegory of a misappropriated science

‘I wonder whether it is useful to let men know the secrets of nature. I am one of those who, like Alfred Nobel, ask whether future discoveries will bring more good than harm to mankind.’ These were the words of Pierre Curie at an official Stockholm speech on being awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics for his pioneering work with radioactivity. More than a century later, the news of the circumstances of death of the Russian spy Litvinenko on the evening of 23 November 2006, at University College Hospital, London, has received a lot of attention. Radioactivity has caught the fancy of the criminal fraternity, thus causing widespread concern. In the past, radioactivity made news in a glaring instance of radio-medical quackery [1], when in 1925 a college dropout and fraudulently titled ‘Dr’ William J. A. Bailey started selling Radithor (solution of radium isotopes, radium-226 and radium-228) in the USA. Sold as a cure for dyspepsia, hypertension, impotence and multiple ‘endocrinological’ problems, the truth was exposed when it led to the painful death of the millionaire socialite and tycoon Eben Byers in 1932. Thousands had been poisoned before the medicine was withdrawn from the shelves and regulatory bodies (e.g. the Food and Drug Administration) sprung into action. Polonium (Po)-210, discovered, ironically, by Pierre Curie's wife Marie Curie and researched further by his daughter Irène Joliot-Curie, is the only natural radioactive isotope of Po, with a half-life of 138.5 days and widely distributed in nature. Like radium, it is a strong α emitter which, being a high-energy–low-penetration radiation, cannot penetrate paper or the epidermis. The risk is therefore low without exposure of wounds or mucous membranes. Tobacco and food items such as seafood and reindeer meat are reported sources of Po [2, 3], although the annual dose is low and any long-term adverse health consequence is debatable. Symptoms of acute exposure are manifest in gastrointestinal, haematological, renal and dermatological systems. Management involves decontamination, supportive therapy and chelation therapy. Chelating agents such as N-(2, 3-dimercaptopropyl) phthalamidic acid, meso-dimercaptosuccinic acid and N, N′-di (2-hydroxyethyl) ethylene-diamine-N, N′-biscarbodithioate have been evaluated in animal studies with positive results [4, 5]. Such incidents of radioactive poisoning deaths also raise concerns over the possibility of bioterrorism, as Po-210, being safe outside the body, is an easy means to meet unscrupulous ends. Apparently, the disquieting words over the future misuse of radioactivity, as expressed by Late Pierre Curie, proved prophetic.

Reindeer meat – is it always tender, tasty and healthy?

Reindeer meat – is it always tender, tasty and healthy?

The market of reindeer meat in Finland, Scarce resource – high-valued products

In 2004 the total production of reindeer meat was about 2.5 million kilos in Finland. About 1.8 million kilos were sold to consumers through the retailing or catering sector. The reindeer owners consumed themselves or sold directly to final customers about 0.7 million kilos of meat. The majority of reindeer meat processors were small enterprises. They employed less than five persons and the turnover was modest. Large companies processed most of the reindeer meat. These companies sold reindeer products like other products to nationwide retailing markets. Reindeer meat was sold most commonly as frozen meat. The main product was frozen sliced reindeer. The majority of the processed reindeer meat was sold to consumers through retailing. The export of reindeer meat was of minor importance to the processors. At the moment reindeer meat is a source of livelihood to a small and skilled group of professionals. Reindeer meat could be processed and sold more effectively to well paying niche markets by improving the cooperation between the companies. Poronlihatuotteiden markkinat SuomessaAbstract in Finnish / Tiivistelmä: Vuonna 2004 poronlihaa tuotettiin Suomessa noin 2,5 miljoonaa kiloa. Vähittäismyymälöiden, suurtalouksien, tukkuliikkeiden ja jalostusteollisuuden kautta myytiin kuluttajille noin 1,80 miljoonaa kiloa poronlihatuotteita. Poronomistajien omaan käyttöön mennyt tai poronomistajien suoraan kuluttajille myyty poronlihamäärä oli noin 0,7 miljoonaa kiloa. Lihanjalostajille poro on niukka raaka-aine, josta valmistetaan arvostettuja tuotteita erikoislihamarkkinoille. Yli puolet poronlihaa jalostavista yrityksistä on perustettu 1990-luvulla tai sen jälkeen. Näistä suurin osa on pieniä yrityksistä, joille poronlihanjalostus on tärkein toimiala. Pienten yritysten kilpailukyky perustuu lähialueelta hankittuun raaka-aineeseen ja ne ovat yleensä erikoistuneet lähimarkkinoihin, omaan tuotteistoon tai räätälöityyn asiakaspalveluun. Pääosa poronlihasta käsitellään kuitenkin muutamassa suuressa lihanjalostusyrityksessä, joille poronlihatuotteet muodostavat usein vain pienen osan yrityksen liikevaihdosta. Seitsemän suurinta yritystä käsittelee 80 prosenttia poroista. Suuret jalostusyritykset myyvät tuotteensa valtakunnallisille vähittäiskauppamarkkinoille ja niille porolihatuotteet ovat tärkeitä yrityskuvaa vahvistavia erikoistuotteita. Vain runsas kolmannes poronlihasta jalostettiin yrityksissä, joissa päätoimialana oli poronlihanjalostus. Poronlihaa käsittelevien yritysten kokonaisliikevaihto oli noin 79 miljoonaa euroa vuonna 2004. Poronlihan jalostuksen osuus oli siitä noin 16,5 miljoonaa euroa. Jalostus työllistää kaikkiaan noin 120 henkeä. Poronliha myydään useimmiten pakasteena. Lähes puolet kaikesta jalostetusta poronlihasta on pakastekäristystä. Valtaosa siitä myydään kuluttajille vähittäiskaupan kautta. Poronlihajalosteista noin viidesosa on tuoretuotteita, esimerkiksi raakapaloiteltua lihaa, paistia tai fileitä. Saman verran poronlihaa myydään savutuotteina. Pääosa niistä on kylmäsavutuotteita. Vähittäiskaupan keskittyminen, markkinoiden segmentoituminen ja kulutustottumusten muuttuminen asettavat uusia vaatimuksia poronlihan tuottajille, jalostajille ja kauppiaille, mutta luovat myös uusia mahdollisuuksia koko poronlihan tuotantoketjulle. Tällä hetkellä rajallisesta raaka-aineesta hankkii elantonsa pieni ja ammattitaitoinen joukko toimijoita, joiden yhteistyö on vielä kehittymätöntä. Yritysten välistä yhteistyötä ja työnjakoa tiivistämällä voitaisiin pieni raakaainemäärä jalostaa ja myydä entistä tehokkaammin hyvin maksaville markkinasegmenteille.

Reindeer Herding in Transition: Historical and Modern Day Challenges for Alaskan Reindeer Herders

Abstract The people of northwestern Alaska have had a long relationship with local populations of Rangifer tarandus. During the last 200 years this relationship has changed from one of subsistence to overexploitation of caribou (the name for wild reindeer in North America), to commercial livestock production of semi domesticated reindeer and now may be returning to a subsistence economy based on caribou. Reindeer were introduced to Alaska in 1892 because of the disappearance of caribou, a subsistence resource. Until recently, reindeer meat and velvet antler production generated significant employment and revenue important to the economies of rural Alaskan communities. However, from 1976 to 1996 the Western Arctic Caribou Herd (WACH) increased from about 75,000 to 463,000 animals. Concurrently, winter range use of the WACH shifted westward onto traditional reindeer ranges of the Seward Peninsula for the first time in over 100 years. This event has produced socio-economic and ecological consequences for the region. Many reindeer herders have lost 75-100 percent of their herds through commingling and out-migration with wild caribou. This loss, amounting to over 17,000 reindeer, represents a potential economic value of millions of dollars. Many herders have adopted new technologies, such as satellite telemetry and intensive herding to salvage what is left of their herds. Here we discuss the role of grazing animals and patterns of human resource use in an Arctic system. We then discuss our findings on the effects and changes in management practices brought about by caribou incursion in the context of the regional economy on the Seward Peninsula.