Reincarceration Rates Research Articles

Parole Revocation Among Prison Inmates With Psychiatric and Substance Use Disorders

Parole Revocation Among Prison Inmates With Psychiatric and Substance Use Disorders

Mother Seeking Safe Home: Aboriginal Women Post-Release

The NSW Government has recently announced the establishment of a number of accommodation and reintegration services for offenders leaving prison and for others subject to non-custodial or parole orders. This shift recognises the established importance of post-release accommodation and individual case management for ex-prisoners as important steps towards addressing the high rates of re-incarceration of people in NSW. However, like the vast majority of such services, this latest measure does not sufficiently respond to the specific issues facing Aboriginal women, who are experiencing the fastest rate of increase of all groups of prisoners across Australia. Aboriginal women have higher rates of return to prison, higher rates of social and physical disadvantage, and higher numbers of dependent children than their non-Aboriginal counterparts. Their specific experiences of intersectional discrimination on the grounds of their race and gender remain largely invisible to policy makers. This article draws on the principles of decolonisation, human rights and social justice alongside relevant research on post-release services and support to propose the development of an Aboriginal-women specific transitional model to assist in redressing the cycle of reincarceration for Aboriginal women in NSW.

Effectiveness of a jail‐based treatment program for individuals with co‐occurring disorders

This study examines the effectiveness of a county jail program for individuals with co-occurring disorders (COD) in reducing rates of recidivism and increasing rates of engagement in community-based treatment following discharge. Over a period of 30 months, between 2002 and 2004, 261 individuals who screened positive for COD voluntarily entered an in-jail treatment program. The program provided integrated treatment for both mental health and substance abuse by therapists who had attended a state sponsored COD core training curriculum. The same program staff provided outpatient services once individuals were discharged. An observational study design was used to examine jail recidivism and community care as a function of intensity of treatment while in jail. All study participants had a minimum one year follow-up. Data was obtained from a baseline comprehensive screening instrument, administrative claims data and county jail records. Logistic regression models were used to determine the likelihood of re-incarceration and community engagement in treatment as a function of the number of treatment sessions provided by the jail program. County jail records indicated that 47.5% were re-incarcerated within 12 months of discharge. During the four and a half year period following the inception of the COD program 67% were re-incarcerated, which was similar to the national three year recidivism rate. Fifty-two percent (52%) attended a community-based treatment program post discharge. The results of the regression analysis showed that a higher number of treatment sessions in the jail COD program was significant in reducing the rate of re-incarceration but was not significant in predicting who would engage in outpatient treatment post discharge. Although the findings are promising, the evidence suggests that the jail treatment intervention may need to be more intense than the outpatient model used in this project given that the average length of stay in the jail program was 8 weeks due to release to the community. An alternative consideration would be to only provide the program to those inmates who are sentenced for at least 90 days.

From the “Streets” To “Normal Life”: Assessing the Role of Social Support in Release Planning for HIV-Positive and Substance-Involved Prisoners

In 2005, there were 20,888 prisoners in the U.S. prisons known to be HIV-positive, many substance-involved. The high reincarceration rate of substance-involved prisoners, coupled with the fact that substance-involved prisoners are more prone to HIV-risk behaviors in the community, necessitates attention to preventing substance use and HIV transmission risk behaviors of prisoners upon reentry to communities. We use a social support framework to explore the role of social support in HIV+ prisoners' expectations of release and postrelease plans. Interview data from 23 participants were collected from August 2005 to January 2006. Participants reported concerns about their ability to access needed formal and informal prosocial support upon release. Implications of these findings for release planning are discussed.

Maintenance therapy and 3‐year outcome of opioid‐dependent prisoners: a prospective study in France (2003–06)

To describe the profile of imprisoned opioid-dependent patients, prescriptions of maintenance therapy at imprisonment and 3-year outcome in terms of re-incarceration and mortality. Prospective, observational study (France, 2003-06). Health units of 47 remand prisons. A total of 507 opioid-dependent patients included within the first week of imprisonment between June 2003 and September 2004, inclusive. Physicians collected socio-demographic data, penal history, history of addiction, maintenance therapy and psychoactive agent use, general health status and comorbidities. Prescriptions at imprisonment were recorded by the prison pharmacist. Re-incarceration data were retrieved from the National Register of Inmates, survival data and causes of death from the National Registers of vital status and death causes. Prison maintenance therapy was delivered at imprisonment to 394/507 (77.7%) patients. These patients had poorer health status, heavier opioid use and prison history and were less socially integrated than the remaining 113 patients. Over 3 years, 238/478 patients were re-incarcerated [51.3 re-incarcerations per 100 patient-years, 95% confidence interval (CI) 46.4-56.2]. Factors associated independently with re-incarceration were prior imprisonment and benzodiazepine use. After adjustment for confounders, maintenance therapy was not associated with a reduced rate of re-incarceration (adjusted relative risk 1.28, 95% CI 0.89-1.85). The all-cause mortality rate was eight per 1000 patient-years (n = 10, 95% CI 4-13). Prescription of maintenance therapy has increased sharply in French prisons since its introduction in the mid-1990s. However, the risk of re-imprisonment or death remains high among opioid-dependent prisoners. Substantial efforts are needed to implement more effective preventive policies.

Sex-specific predictors of criminal recidivism in a representative sample of incarcerated youth

Objective The objective of the study was to identify sex-specific psychopathologic predictors of criminal recidivism among a representative sample of incarcerated youths. Method In this prospective longitudinal study, the Mini-International Psychiatric Interview for children and adolescents was used to assess psychopathology in juveniles entering an Austrian pretrial detention facility between March 2003 and January 2005. From the beginning of the study until January 2006, data on criminal history were obtained from the Integrierte Vollzugsverwaltung, a database containing criminal information of every individual incarcerated in Austria. Of the 370 eligible participants, the final study sample comprised 328 juveniles (56 girls and 272 boys, age range = 14-21 years, mean = 16.7). Results Reincarceration rates within the specified follow-up period were 52.6% for the boys and 37.5% for the girls. Using Cox forward stepwise regression and Kaplan-Meier analyses, age at first incarceration ( B = −.296, Wald statistic = 17.11, P < .001) and oppositional defiant disorder ( B = .751, Wald statistic = 19.25, P < .001) were identified as significant predictors for reoffending in boys. In girls, generalized anxiety disorder ( B = 1.97, Wald statistic = 13.71, P < .001) was found to be a predictor for reoffending, whereas dysthymia ( B = −1.44, Wald statistic = 4.02, P = .045) was found to serve as protective factor. Conclusion Our study confirms high rates of reoffending after release from correctional facilities in both sexes. It further defines sex-specific psychopathologic risk factors for relapse in incarcerated juveniles. According to our results, in boys, oppositional defiant disorder and early age at first incarceration are predictive of reincarceration. In girls, anxiety disorder was found to be a risk factor for future offending, whereas dysthymia was found to have a protective influence. Consequently, rehabilitation programs should be sex specific.

Inmate Recidivism as a Measure of Private Prison Performance

The growth of the private corrections industry has elicited interest in the comparative performance of state and private prisons. One way to measure the service quality of private prisons is to examine inmates' postrelease performance. Current empirical evidence is limited to four studies, all conducted in Florida. This analysis replicates and adds to the Florida measures in a different state and enhances previous methods. It uses data for a large cohort of Oklahoma state prison inmates released between 1997 and 2001. Controlling for known covariates, multivariate survival analysis revealed comparative rates of reincarceration for inmates in multiple exposure and comparison groups. These results are unique among prior studies on this topic; private prison inmates had a greater hazard of recidivism in all eight models tested, six of which were statistically significant. Finding no empirical support for claims of superior service from private corrections, the authors discuss policy implications and prospects for future research.

Low Reincarceration Rate Associated with Ananda Marga Yoga and Meditation

Ananda Marga (AM) Yoga was taught to male inmates at Wake Correctional Center in Raleigh, NC. A five-year study of 190 inmates found that those who were taught Ananda Marga (AM) Yoga were significantly less likely to be reincarcerated upon release. Subjects were divided into two groups, those who attended at least one, but less than four classes, and those who attended more than four classes. Differences in reincarceration rates between these two groups during a two-year post-release period were striking. Of those who attended more than four classes, 8.5% were reincarcerated, while 25.2% of those who attended fewer than four classes were reincarcerated during this same period. This difference was found to be statistically significant at the 0.025 level.

A Multisite Evaluation of Prison-Based Therapeutic Community Drug Treatment

A quasi-experimental study examined multiple postrelease outcomes up to 2 years for inmates who participated in therapeutic community (TC) drug treatment programs ( n = 217) or comparison groups ( n = 491) at five state prisons. Statistical controls included level of need for treatment, current and prior criminal history, and postrelease employment. Prison TC was effective even without mandatory community aftercare, although main effects and interactions varied somewhat across different outcome measures and sites. TC significantly reduced rearrest and reincarceration rates but not drug relapse rates. Postrelease employment predicted drug relapse and reincarceration, and employment interacted with age to predict rearrest. Two sites had higher drug relapse rates than the other three. Implications for research and policy are discussed.

Rehabilitation of Released Prisoners in the Kibbutz

The present research examines 110 released prisoners who were sent for rehabilitation to the Kibbutz Movement by the Israeli Prisoner Rehabilitation Service between 1983 and 2001. The research examines several measures of their adjustment towards normative life during and after their stay at the kibbutz. The research was based on interviews with each of the offender's adoptive families and with the released prisoners themselves. Program participant's reincarceration rate was 22.7%, which is much lower than the 63% reincarceration rate in the general population of released prisoners in Israel. Findings show that the most significant predictors of successful rehabilitation were length of stay in the kibbutz, work and social integration, and adherence to kibbutz norms.

MYERS AND ZACK RESPOND

We appreciate Cohen and colleagues’ comments on our report of evaluation results from a prevention case management program (PCM) delivered to men and women leaving correctional settings in California (“Get Connected”). Cohen et al. argue that PCM “should not be touted as a cost-effective use of resources for HIV prevention”1(p400) and that other interventions may prevent HIV infections at a lower cost. We would like to point out that while cost-effectiveness analysis is a powerful tool for understanding the relative value of interventions, it requires incorporation of accurate inputs and assumptions. Cohen et al.’s analysis does not adequately reflect the characteristics of the population at hand, nor does it quantify the full range of PCM’s benefits. Furthermore, it is true that PCM requires significant resources, but results from “Get Connected” support its use with populations such as the one we serve for reasons beyond cost per HIV case averted. Most Get Connected clients were African American or Latino and all had histories of incarceration. Cohen et al. likely underestimate the scope of HIV infection in this population because prevalence is higher in prison and in communities of color than in the general population.2,3 Risky behavior among inmates may also contribute to higher transmission rates among prisoners and former prisoners and their sexual and drug-using partners.4–6 Cohen et al’s analysis does not account for morbidity and mortality averted from causes other than HIV, which is likely significant.7 The intent of the initiative that funded Get Connected was to develop “comprehensive surveillance, prevention and health care activities for HIV, sexually transmitted diseases, tuberculosis, substance abuse, and hepatitis” (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, unpublished grant application guidance). HIV risk behavior was just one of the outcomes we sought to influence with PCM. We were not able to collect clinical indicators as part of the evaluation, but the reduction in risk behavior we documented among clients likely resulted in lower rates of other undesirable outcomes. Finally, the community-based organization in which this work took place, Centerforce, is guided by its mission “to strengthen individuals and families affected by incarceration through a comprehensive system of education and support.”8 PCM is an approach that works well in the context of Centerforce because PCM and successful programs for individuals leaving prison share many of the same components.9 Any evaluation of the value of PCM must consider both HIV-related and non–HIV-related benefits, including intensive case management’s link to reduced rates of reincarceration and the cost savings associated with this reduction.10–11

Predictors of Prison-Based Treatment Outcomes: A Comparison of Men and Women Participants

The purpose of this study was to examine differences between men and women entering prison-based therapeutic community (TC) treatment and to explore the relationship of those differences to posttreatment outcomes (i.e., aftercare participation and reincarceration rates). Extensive treatment-intake interview data for 4,386 women and 4,164 men from 16 prison-based TCs in California were compared using chi-square analyses and t-tests. Logistic regression analyses were then conducted separately for men and women to identify gender-specific factors associated with post-treatment outcomes. Prison intake data and treatment participation data come from a 5-year process and outcome evaluation of the California Department of Corrections' (CDC) Prison Treatment Expansion Initiative. The return-to-custody data came from the CDC's Offender Based Information System. Bivariate results showed that women were at a substantial disadvantage compared with their male counterparts with regard to histories of employment, substance abuse, psychological functioning, and sexual and physical abuse prior to incarceration. In contrast, men had more serious criminal justice involvement than women prior to incarceration. After controlling for these and other factors related to outcomes, regression findings showed that there were both similarities and differences with regard to gender-specific predictors of posttreatment outcomes. Time in treatment and motivation for treatment were similar predictors of aftercare participation for men and women. Psychological impairment was the strongest predictor of recidivism for both men and women. Substantial differences in background characteristics and the limited number of predictors related to posttreatment outcomes for women suggests the plausibility of gender-specific paths in the recovery process.

Four‐year follow‐up of imprisoned male heroin users and methadone treatment: mortality, re‐incarceration and hepatitis C infection

To examine the long-term impact of methadone maintenance treatment (MMT) on mortality, re-incarceration and hepatitis C seroconversion in imprisoned male heroin users. The study cohort comprised 382 imprisoned male heroin users who had participated in a randomized controlled trial of prison-based MMT in 1997/98. Subjects were followed-up between 1998 and 2002 either in the general community or in prison. All-cause mortality, re-incarceration, hepatitis C and HIV serostatus and MMT retention. There were no deaths recorded while subjects were enrolled in MMT. Seventeen subjects died while out of MMT, representing an untreated mortality rate of 2.0 per 100 person-years (95% CI, 1.2-3.2). Re-incarceration risk was lowest during MMT episodes of 8 months or longer (adjusted hazard ratio 0.3 (95% CI, 0.2-0.5; P < 0.001), although MMT periods 2 months or less were associated with greatest risk of re-incarceration (P < 0.001). Increased risk of hepatitis C seroconversion was significantly associated with prison sentences of less than 2 months [adjusted hazard ratio 20 (95% CI, 5-76; < P = 0.001)] and MMT episodes less than 5 months [adjusted hazard ratio 4.2 (95% CI, 1.4-12.6; P = 0.01)]. Subjects were at greatest risk of MMT dropout during short prison sentences of 1 month or less (adjusted hazard ratio 10.4 (95% CI, 7.0-15.7; P < 0.001). HIV incidence was 0.3 per 100 person-years (95% CI, 0.03-0.99). Retention in MMT was associated with reduced mortality, re-incarceration rates and hepatitis C infection. Prison-based MMT programmes are integral to the continuity of treatment needed to ensure optimal outcomes for individual and public health.

Beyond the Prison Paradigm: From Provoking Violence to Preventing It by Creating “Anti‐Prisons” (Residential Colleges and Therapeutic Communities)

Prisons were supposedly created for the purpose of the tertiary prevention of violence (i.e., reducing the frequency and severity of future violence on the part of people who have already become violent). However, there is much evidence that this method of attempting to prevent violence is often, though not always, either ineffectual or counterproductive, in which case it is either a waste of money or actually exacerbates the problem it was ostensibly intended to solve. This article reviews evidence concerning those questions including an analysis of the effect of punishment (one of the main purposes of prisons) on violent behavior. Punishment--the infliction of pain--will be distinguished from restraint (incapacitation, separation from the community). Successful examples of violence prevention in unconventional prison programs, emphasizing therapy and education rather than punishment, and restorative rather than retributive justice, will be summarized, together with evidence that these programs reduce re-incarceration rates so substantially that they actually save the taxpayers more money than they cost, in addition to enhancing the safety of the general public. The position is taken that traditional prisons provoke more violence than they prevent and are so fundamentally flawed that they cannot be reformed; we argue that they should instead be abolished and replaced by "anti-prisons," that is, locked, secure residential colleges, therapeutic communities, and centers for human development. Prisons will come to be seen as a well-meaning experiment that failed, rather like the use of leeches in medicine.

One year return to custody rates among co-disordered offenders.

The extent to which therapeutic community (TC) methods meet the treatment needs of offenders with substance abuse disorders and co-occurring psychiatric disorders in prison is largely unknown. Very little research has been conducted with this population. The purposes of this study were to generate profiles of co-disordered drug offenders entering TC treatment in prison and to assess their post-release reincarceration rates, compared with drug offenders without psychiatric disorders. Extensive intake interview data for over 8,500 men and women who received treatment in one of 16 prison-based TCs in California were analyzed to produce profiles of co-disordered participants. Intake data come from a 5 year process and outcome evaluation of the California Department of Corrections' (CDC's) treatment initiative. Post-release reincarceration rates come from the CDC's Offender Based Information System. Compared with non-psychiatric disordered drug offenders, co-disordered offenders had substantially more severe substance abuse and criminal histories, in addition to their psychiatric impairment, at treatment entry. Logistic regression results indicated that, compared with drug offenders without psychiatric illness, co-disordered offenders were significantly more likely to be reincarcerated during the first year of their parole. These results suggest that prison treatment programs may need to use more comprehensive diagnostic assessments at intake to assess the diverse mental health needs of drug offenders with co-occurring psychiatric disorders and to develop treatment approaches suitable for this population.

Amity Prison-Based Therapeutic Community: 5-Year Outcomes

Few studies have examined outcomes of prison-based treatment programs over a 5-year observation period. The present analysis was based on a sample of 715 prisoners randomly assigned either to the Amity therapeutic community program or to a notreatment group. At 5-years postrelease, 90% of the original participants were located and 81% were interviewed. The main findings were based on a conservative intent-to-treat approach. On measures of recidivism, the Amity treatment group had significantly lower rates of reincarceration than the control group, but in multivariate analysis of time to first reincarceration, this main treatment effect disappeared and other factors (age and postrelease treatment) became significant predictors of delayed time to reincarceration. As in previous reports on this cohort, those who attended aftercare had lower levels of reincarceration, longer time to reincarceration, and higher levels of employment.

Walpole Study of the Transcendental Meditation Program in Maximum Security Prisoners III

Part III of the Walpole Prison Study builds on the earlier longitudinal and cross-sectional findings in Parts I and II that reported reduced psychopathology and accelerated psychological development in members of the Transcendental Meditation1 prison program. Part III is a retrospective investigation of recidivism among 286 inmates released from Walpole prison, who were followed for up to 59 months. The sample comprised all subjects from the following sources who had been released six months prior to data collection: (a) all inmates who had learned the TM program at Wal-pole; (b) random samples of four other prison programs at Walpole (counseling, drug rehabilitation, Christian, and Muslim); (c) a random sample of the Walpole inmate population; and (d) subjects who were tested longitudinally in the prior Walpole studies. The rate of return to prison for a stay of 30 days or more was 32% among inmates who practiced the TM technique compared to 48% for a combined control group comprised of members of four other prison programs. This represented a proportionate reduction in recidivism of 33%, which was statistically significant (p = .042). Separate comparisons showed that the TM group also had lower reincarceration rates than each of the four other programs, with proportionate reductions in recidivism ranging from 29% to 42% (p = .007 to .073). In addition, the TM group compared to all non-meditating subjects had a lower rate of reincarceration due to new convictions (47% lower, proportionately; p = .045) and a 27% proportionately lower rate of reincarceration/warrant for arrest (p = .069). The pattern of reduced recidivism for TM program members was maintained in multiple regression analyses, controlling for background and release variables (e.g., parole vs. full discharge, institution of release, drug history). These findings are consistent with the proposition that the reduced psychopathology and accelerated psychological development resulting from the TM program are responsible for reductions in criminal behavior.

The Amity Prison TC Evaluation

This article is drawn from an ongoing evaluation of the effectiveness of the Amity prison therapeutic community (TC) and aftercare program for substance abusers located in San Diego, California. Data collection consisted of face-to-face interviews and reviews of criminal justice records on a sample of 715 male inmates. Subjects were randomly assigned to the prison TC intent-to-treat group and no-treatment control group from a waiting list of inmates who had volunteered for substance abuse treatment in the Amity program. Reductions in reincarceration rates of more than 40% at 12 months and more than 50% at 24 months after release from prison were found for the group that completed prison TC plus aftercare. These improvements remained significant after controlling for client characteristics that have been identified as predictors of recidivism. The findings support the efficacy of prison TC plus aftercare in reducing reincarceration rates among inmates treated for substance abuse.

The treatment of mentally disordered offenders in Japanese medical prisons.

The author outlines the general trends of crime and the treatment of criminals in Japan, and trends of mentally disordered offenders in Japanese penal institutions. Further, he explains the treatment of the mentally disordered offenders in Japanese medical prisons. The author analyzes the Hachioji Medical Prison's treatment record, particularly in regards to the reincarceration rate, which markedly decreases when family support and psychiatric treatment are properly present after release. Finally, the author stresses the value of correctional psychiatric treatment in the medical prison; it is expected to play an important role in contributing to the rehabilitation of mentally disordered offenders and "patients difficult to treat," and bringing about more open and innovative community-centered mental health services.

Emergency room reduction of incarcerated inguinal hernia in infants: is routine hospital admission necessary?

We studied the outcome in 94 infants less than 1 year of age who had an incarcerated inguinal hernia reduced in the emergency room. Fifty-six were admitted and 38 were sent home. Of the 56 infants admitted, 12 (21%) reincarcerated prior to surgery, whereas 28 (74%) of the 38 sent home reincarcerated. The incidence of reincarcinated was not affected by age or weight. Mean time to surgery was 2 days in the admission group and 10 days in the outpatient group. The cumulative reincarceration rate 72 h after the initial reduction was similar in the two groups, and the majority of reincarcerations in those sent home occured later than 72 h after the initial reduction. The wound infection rate was slighty higher in the admission group, but other early and late complications were not affected by either admission or the presence of reincarceration. Although it is safe to send infants home after emergency room reduction of an incarcerated inguinal hernia, definitive repair should be done within 72 h to avoid an increased risk of reincarceration.