Regulation Of Blood Glucose Levels Research Articles

Design of an Insulin Tracer Protein-Based Biosensor for Insulin Determination

Aim: The regulation of blood glucose levels is controlled by insulin, which is produced by the pancreatic beta system. Inadequate synthesis of beta insulin, results in elevated glucose levels, a condition known as diabetes, which can lead to various chronic health issues. In recent times, the diagnosis of diabetes, particularly type 1, has shifted towards the direct measurement of insulin levels. To facilitate this, an immunosensor was created to enable rapid and sensitive examination of insulin levels, with the goal of improving the quality for life for diabetic patients. Material and Method: For this purpose, an insulin tracer protein based biosensor was designed for the determination of insulin at all solutions. For determination of insulin, electrobiochemical analyses were performed. Optimisation and characterisation studies were performed using differential pulse voltammetry. The performance of bioelectrochemical system was analysed by Receiver Operating Characteristic method. Results: The insulin biosensor cyclic woltammogram was obtained between -0,1 and 0,6 V potantial. At 0,45 V was found as the anodic peak side for determination the insulin. Optimisation and characterisation studies performed at 0,45 V with differential pulse voltammetry. Conclusion: The study successfully identified stable and easy-to-use insulin concentrations, indicating the potential of the newly developed immunosensor for applications in clinical biochemistry laboratories.

Phytochemical and pharmacological properties of the genus Tamarix: a comprehensive review.

The genus Tamarix in the Tamaricaceae family consists of more than 100 species of halophyte plants worldwide that are mainly used to improve saline-alkali land and for coastal windbreaks, sand fixation, and afforestation in arid areas. A considerable number of species in this genus are also used as traditional medicines to treat various human diseases, especially in Asian and African countries. This review presents a comprehensive summary of 655 naturally occurring compounds derived from the genus Tamarix, categorized into flavonoids (18.0%), phenols (13.9%), tannins (9.3%), terpenoids (10.5%), essential oils (31.0%), and others (17.3%). The investigation revealed that the crude extracts and phytochemicals of this genus exhibited significant therapeutic potential, including anti-inflammatory, anti-Alzheimer, anticancer, antidiabetic, antibacterial, and antifungal activities. Six species of Tamarix have anticancer effects by causing cancer cell death, inducing autophagy, and stopping cell division. Seven species from the same genus have the potential for treating diabetes by inhibiting α-glycosidase activity, suppressing human islet amyloid polypeptide, regulating blood glucose levels, and modulating autophagy or inflammation. The focus on antibacterial and antidiabetic effects is due to the presence of volatile oil and flavonoid components. Extensive research has been conducted on the biological activity of 30 constituents, including 15 flavonoids, 5 phenols, 3 terpenoids, 1 tannin, and 6 others. Therefore, future research should thoroughly study the mechanisms of action of these and similar compounds. This is the most comprehensive review of the phytochemistry and pharmacological properties of Tamarix species, with a critical assessment of the current state of knowledge.

Dynamics of a New Delayed Glucose–Insulin Model with Obesity

In this work, a new glucose–insulin model incorporating time delay and obesity is developed to gain insights of its dynamical mechanisms. Through the method of multiple scales, we theoretically demonstrate that time delay can drive the system to yield Hopf bifurcation, thereby producing oscillating solutions that are consistent with the simulation results. Moreover, obesity changes the level of glucose, but cannot induce oscillations. In particular, it is found that under the combined effect of obesity and time delay, obesity delays the appearance of Hopf bifurcation which is induced by time delay. Results show that a low calorie diet can achieve therapeutic effects including reducing blood glucose fluctuations and insulin resistance, which can be used as an adjuvant for the treatment of diabetes. In addition, our results indicate that the delay, together with an optimal rate of model parameters can cause a variety of dynamics and induce glucose oscillations. The result obtained in this paper may help to better understand the obesity, diabetes, and the interaction between glucose and insulin, so that control strategies can be designed to better regulate blood glucose levels and fluctuations and mitigate the occurrence of type-2 diabetes.

Integration of metformin-loaded MIL-100(Fe) into hydrogel microneedles for prolonged regulation of blood glucose levels

The transdermal drug delivery based on microneedles (MNs) provides a suitable and painless self-administration for diabetic patients. In this work, the hydrogel-forming MNs were firstly fabricated using poly(vinyl alcohol) (PVA) and chitosan (CS) as matrix. A hypoglycemic drug, metformin (Met), had been loaded into MIL-100(Fe). Then, both of free Met and Met-loaded MIL-100(Fe) were integrated into hydrogel-forming MNs for regulation of blood glucose levels (BGLs) on diabetic rats. After penetrated into the skin, the free Met could be firstly released from MNs. Due to the absorption of interstitial fluid and subsequent release of loaded Met from MIL-100(Fe), leading to a sustainable and long-term drug release behaviors. A notable hypoglycemic effect and low risk of hypoglycemia could be obtained on diabetic rat models in vivo. The as-fabricated hydrogel-forming MNs expected to become a new type of transdermal drug delivery platform for transdermal delivery of high-dose drugs to form a long-term hypoglycemic effect.

<i>In Vitro</i> Anti-oxidant and Antidiabetic Activity of the Leaves of <i>Stereospermum sauveolens</i> (Roxb.) DC

Background: Diabetes mellitus is a metabolic condition characterised by a persistent rise in blood glucose levels. Diabetes is just one of the many disorders that can be treated using natural remedies made from plants. Stereospermum suaveolens (Roxb.) DC, belongs to the family Bignoniaceae, commonly known as Padri. It is employed as a folk remedy in southern India to cure diabetes. Aim: The aim of this study is to assess the potential anti-diabetic and antioxidant properties of the hydroalcoholic extract of S. suaveolens (Roxb.) DC leaves through phytochemical screening and in vitro assays. Methods: Leaves of S. suaveolens (Roxb.) DC were collected and processed to obtain a hydroalcoholic extract. The extract was subjected to qualitative analysis to identify the presence of various phytochemical constituents. The free radical scavenging activity of the extract was evaluated using Nitric oxide radical scavenging assay and DPPH racial scavenging assay. In vitro anti-diabetic studies were performed through α-amylase inhibition assay and glucose uptake assay. Results: The hydroalcoholic extract of S. suaveolens (Roxb.) DC leaves exhibited the presence of bioactive compounds. The extract demonstrated dose-dependent free radical scavenging activity in the in vitro antioxidant assays. The extract showed remarkable inhibitory activity against α-amylase, suggesting its potential in controlling carbohydrate digestion. Also the extract significantly enhanced glucose uptake by yeast cells, indicating its potential to regulate blood glucose levels. Conclusion: The findings of this study indicate that the hydroalcoholic extract of S. suaveolens (Roxb.) DC leaves possesses both antioxidant and anti-diabetic properties. These results suggest its potential as a natural medicinal agent for the management and treatment of type 2 diabetes mellitus.

A Glucose-Responsive Cannula for Automated and Electronics-Free Insulin Delivery.

Automated delivery of insulin based on continuous glucose monitoring is revolutionizing the way insulin-dependent diabetes is treated. However, challenges remain for the widespread adoption of these systems, including the requirement of a separate glucose sensor, sophisticated electronics and algorithms, and the need for significant user input to operate these costly therapies. Herein, a user-centric glucose-responsive cannula is reported for electronics-free insulin delivery. The cannula-made from a tough, elastomer-hydrogel hybrid membrane formed through a one-pot solvent exchange method-changes permeability to release insulin rapidly upon physiologically relevant varying glucose levels, providing simple and automated insulin delivery with no additional hardware or software. Two prototypes of the cannula are evaluated in insulin-deficient diabetic mice. The first cannula-an ends-sealed, subcutaneously inserted prototype-normalizes blood glucose levels for 3d and controls postprandial glucose levels. The second, more translational version-a cannula with the distal end sealed and the proximal end connected to a transcutaneous injection port-likewise demonstrates tight, 3-d regulation of blood glucose levels when refilled twice daily. This proof-of-concept study may aid in the development of "smart" cannulas and next-generation insulin therapies at a reduced burden-of-care toll and cost to end-users.

Targeting Non-Alcoholic Fatty Liver Disease with Hawthorn Ethanol Extract (HEE): A Comprehensive Examination of Hepatic Lipid Reduction and Gut Microbiota Modulation.

Recent studies have highlighted the lipid-lowering ability of hawthorn ethanol extract (HEE) and the role played by gut flora in the efficacy of HEE. Our study sought to explore the effects of HEE on non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) in normal flora and pseudo germ-free mice. The results showed that HEE effectively diminished hepatic lipid accumulation, ameliorated liver function, reduced inflammatory cytokine levels and blood lipid profiles, and regulated blood glucose levels. HEE facilitated triglyceride breakdown, suppressed fatty acid synthesis, and enhanced intestinal health by modulating the diversity of the gut microbiota and the production of short-chain fatty acids in the gut. In addition, HEE apparently helps to increase the presence of beneficial genera of bacteria, thereby influencing the composition of the gut microbiota, and the absence of gut flora affects the efficacy of HEE. These findings reveal the potential of hawthorn for the prevention and treatment of NAFLD and provide new perspectives on the study of functional plants to improve liver health.

The Potential of Red Betel Leaf and Mangosteen Peel in Lowering Blood Sugar Levels in Patients with Diabetes Mellitus

A study comparing the effects of red betel leaf decoction, mangosteen peel juice, and conventional medication on blood glucose levels in individuals with type II diabetes mellitus was conducted in Indonesia. The research involved three groups of eight participants each, selected through purposive sampling. Following administration, the average blood glucose level was 190.75 mg/dL for red betel leaf decoction, 194.38 mg/dL for mangosteen peel juice, and 186.50 mg/dL for conventional medication. Surprisingly, there was no significant difference in the effectiveness of red betel leaf decoction and mangosteen peel juice in managing blood sugar levels, with a p-value of 0.582 (p<0.05). These findings suggest that both herbal interventions are comparable to conventional medication in regulating blood glucose levels among type II diabetes patients. In conclusion, the study highlights the potential of red betel leaf and mangosteen peel as alternative non-pharmacological interventions for managing diabetes. Further research is warranted to explore their mechanisms of action and long-term effects on diabetes management

Sodium-Glucose Cotransporter 2 Inhibitors' Mechanism of Action and Use in Kidney Transplantation Recipients: Extended Review and Update

AbstractFive sodium-glucose cotransporters (SGLTs) protein family members are important for regulating blood glucose levels. The essential cotransporters for glucose reabsorption by proximal convoluted tubule are SGLT1 and 2. The newest recommendations advocate GLT2 inhibitors as first-line treatment for type 2 diabetes (T2D) with and without chronic kidney disease (CKD), improving CKD and cardiovascular outcomes.SGLT2 inhibitors enhance kidney transplant patients' life quality, delay CKD progression, have renoprotective effects, and reduce cardiovascular disease in CKD patients, despite minimal published evidence on the usage of SGLT2 inhibitors in kidney transplantation recipients (KTxRs) with T2D or new-onset T2D. They preserve and improve renal function and cardiovascular outcomes in KTxRs. SGLT2 inhibitors' safety issues have prevented KTxRs from participating in major randomized studies, leaving doctors and patients unsure whether these extraordinary drugs outweigh the risks.This extended review analyzes the established mechanisms through which SGLT2 inhibitors exert their positive effects, evaluate the potential advantages and drawbacks of these agents in KTx, and examine the current research findings on using SGLT2 inhibitors in KTxRs. Additionally, potential avenues for future research will be suggested. Different phrases were used to search for recent original and review articles published between January 2020 and November 2023 in PubMed, Google Scholar, Scopus, EMBASE, and Google to achieve the review objectives.

Investigation of Zinc on hemorheological parameters in a rat model of diabetes

Diabetes mellitus (DM) is a complex, chronic metabolic disorder characterized by impaired regulation of blood glucose levels. Zinc (Zn) is an essential trace elements that plays a role in various physiological processes within the body, including those related to diabetes. The current study was investigated the effect of Zn supplementation on hemorheological parameters in a rat model of DM. After induction of DM, 32 male Wistar albino rats were divided into four groups: control, Zn, DM, and Zn+DM. Whole blood viscosity (WBV) was determined by using digital cone and plate viscometer and plasma viscosity (PV) was determined by a Coulter Harkness capillary viscometer. The rats in the DM Group showed a decrease in both Zn levels and body weight, as well as an increase in glucose levels when compared to the control group. Diabetic rats supplemented with Zn displayed lower blood glucose levels and higher concentrations of Zn compared to the DM Group. The higher PV and lower hematocrit level were measured in DM Group than control group and lower PV, higher hematocrit level were measured in Zn+DM group than DM Group. The WBV was measured at four different shear rates (57.6–115.2 - 172.8–230.4 s −1). A statistically significant increase was observed in the DM group compared to the control group. Additionally, a statistically significant decrease was observed in the Zn+DM Group compared to the DM Group at a shear rate of 230.4 s−1. Erythrocyte rigidity index (Tk) and oxygen delivery index (ODI) were computed under conditions of high shear rate. The rats in the DM group exhibited a reduction in ODI and an elevation in Tk in comparison to the control group. Conversely, the diabetic rats supplemented with Zn exhibited decreased Tk and increased ODI compared to the DM Group. Zn supplementation seems to have a potential beneficial effect for protecting adverse affect of diabetes on hemorheogical parameters and for maintaining vascular health.

Hepatic ketone body regulation of renal gluconeogenesis

ObjectivesDuring fasting, liver pivotally regulates blood glucose levels through glycogenolysis and gluconeogenesis. Kidney also produces glucose through gluconeogenesis. Gluconeogenic genes are transactivated by fasting, but their expression patterns are chronologically different between the two organs. We find that renal gluconeogenic gene expressions are positively correlated with the blood β-hydroxybutyrate concentration. Thus, we herein aim to investigate the regulatory mechanism and its physiological implications. MethodsGluconeogenic gene expressions in liver and kidney were examined in hyperketogenic mice such as high-fat diet (HFD)-fed and ketogenic diet-fed mice, and in hypoketogenic PPARα knockout (PPARα−/−) mice. Renal gluconeogenesis was evaluated by rise in glycemia after glutamine loading in vivo. Functional roles of β-hydroxybutyrate in the regulation of renal gluconeogenesis were investigated by metabolome analysis and RNA-seq analysis of proximal tubule cells. ResultsRenal gluconeogenic genes were transactivated concurrently with blood β-hydroxybutyrate uprise under ketogenic states, but the increase was blunted in hypoketogenic PPARα−/− mice. Administration of 1,3-butandiol, a ketone diester, transactivated renal gluconeogenic gene expression in fasted PPARα−/− mice. In addition, HFD-fed mice showed fasting hyperglycemia along with upregulated renal gluconeogenic gene expression, which was blunted in HFD-fed PPARα−/− mice. In vitro experiments and metabolome analysis in renal tubular cells showed that β-hydroxybutyrate directly promotes glucose and NH3 production through transactivating gluconeogenic genes. In addition, RNA-seq analysis revealed that β-hydroxybutyrate-induced transactivation of Pck1 was mediated by C/EBPβ. ConclusionsOur findings demonstrate that β-hydroxybutyrate mediates hepato–renal interaction to maintain homeostatic regulation of blood glucose and systemic acid-base balance through renal gluconeogenesis regulation.

Optimizing blood glucose regulation in type 1 diabetes: A fractional order controller approach

This study presents the design and implementation of a Fractional Order Proportional, Integral, and Derivative (FOPID) controller intended for the regulation of blood glucose levels in individuals with type 1 diabetes mellitus (T1DM). The efficacy of this controller is evaluated through its application to a nonlinear Stolwijk–Hardy model simulating T1DM patients, accounting for a range of physiological conditions. Utilizing a genetic algorithm, the parameters of the FOPID controller are fine-tuned. By conducting a comparative analysis with previously established control algorithms, the performance of the proposed controller is validated, demonstrating its superior performance. The results underscore the significant improvements achieved by the proposed controller in maintaining blood glucose concentrations within safe thresholds, particularly in scenarios involving disruptions due to meals.

New applications of soybean residues in food development

SummarySoybean residue plays an important role in the food industry as a by‐product of soybean processing, especially for functional foods which are beneficial for human health. It can significantly augment the protein, dietary fibre and other crucial nutrients in food products. This fortification process can not only help in regulating blood glucose levels and minimising the risk of obesity but also play an imperative role in offering medicinal benefits to diabetic patients. In the past few years, soybean residues have been found extensive application in functional food items like noodles, cakes, meat products, beverages and seasoning, which have gained significant traction among consumers. Therefore, the utilisation of soybean residues in the food industry presents significant potential for growth and serves as a valuable source of guidance and inspiration for the advancement of functional foods.

Aerobic Exercise Modulates Proteomic Profiles in Gastrocnemius Muscle of db/db Mice, Ameliorating Sarcopenia.

Type-2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM)-induced sarcopenia is intertwined with diminished insulin sensitivity and extracellular matrix (ECM) remodeling in skeletal muscle and other organs. Physical activities such as aerobic exercise play a crucial role in regulating blood glucose levels, insulin sensitivity, metabolic pathways, oxidative stress, fibrosis, ECM remodeling, and muscle regeneration by modulating differentially expressed protein (DEP) levels. The objectives of our research were to investigate the effect of six weeks of aerobic exercise on the gastrocnemius and soleus muscle of db/db mice's DEP levels compared to those of sedentary db/db mice. A total of eight db/db mice were divided into two groups (n = 4 per group), namely sedentary mice (SED) and exercise-trained mice (ET), of which the latter were subjected to six weeks of a moderate-intensity aerobic exercise intervention for five days per week. After the exercise intervention, biochemical tests, including analyses of blood glucose and HbA1c levels, were performed. Histological analysis using H & E staining on tissue was performed to compare morphological characters. Gastrocnemius and soleus muscles were dissected and processed for proteomic analysis. Data were provided and analyzed based on the DEPs using the label-free quantification (LFQ) algorithm. Functional enrichment analysis and Ingenuity Pathway Analysis (IPA) were employed as bioinformatics tools to elucidate the molecular mechanisms involved in the DEPs and disease progression. Significantly reduced blood glucose and HbA1c levels and an increased cross-sectional area (CSA) of gastrocnemius muscle fibers were seen in the ET group after the exercise interventions due to upregulations of metabolic pathways. Using proteomics data analysis, we found a significant decrease in COL1A1, COL4A2, ENG, and LAMA4 protein levels in the ET gastrocnemius, showing a significant improvement in fibrosis recovery, ECM remodeling, and muscle regeneration via the downregulation of the TGF-β signaling pathway. Upregulated metabolic pathways due to ET-regulated DEPs in the gastrocnemius indicated increased glucose metabolism, lipid metabolism, muscle regeneration, and insulin sensitivity, which play a crucial role in muscle regeneration and maintaining blood glucose and lipid levels. No significant changes were observed in the soleus muscle due to the type of exercise and muscle fiber composition. Our research suggests that engaging in six weeks of aerobic exercise may have a positive impact on the recovery of T2DM-induced sarcopenia, which might be a potential candidate for mitigation, prevention, and therapeutic treatment in the future.

Conveying the pathogenesis of type 1 diabetes to the blind, low-vision and diverse needs communities through sensory stimulation.

To educate members of the blind, low-vision and diverse needs communities on the pathogenesis of the chronic autoimmune disease, type 1 diabetes, members of our team with research expertise in immune-mediated diseases, participated in the 2023 Monash Sensory Science (MSS) Exhibition. Using QR code linked audio commentary, participants were guided through tactile displays demonstrating normal insulin action in the regulation of blood glucose levels and its vital role in providing energy to tissues, followed by displays describing the various stages of the immune system's aberrant attack and the eventual complete destruction of the insulin producing beta-cells of the pancreatic islets in type 1 diabetes. These models conveyed to the participants the huge effect that this autoimmune-mediated disease has on the quality of life of affected individuals including the subsequent lifelong reliance on insulin injections to maintain glucose homeostasis. This MSS Exhibition provided a unique opportunity for our researchers to engage with under-represented members of the community and to raise awareness about such a debilitating and common autoimmune disease.

Gracilaria extract reduce hyperglycemia by modulating gut microbial and short chain fatty acids

High blood sugar is the main feature of diabetes. In order to effectively regulate blood glucose levels, in this study, we used Gracilaria as raw material and found that 70% ethanol extract of Gracilaria (GE) and complex protease hydrolysate of Gracilaria (GH) were beneficial for decreasing fasting blood glucose, improving insulin resistance, enhancing the function of islet β-cells, and regulating the abnormal increase of TC, TG, LDL-c caused by hyperglycemia in diabetic mice. Moreover, 70% ethanol extract of Gracilaria (GE) and complex protease hydrolysate of Gracilaria (GH) affected the gut microbiota structure of diabetic mice, decreased the Firmicutes/Bacteroidetes ratio, increased the abundance of Lactobacillus and Collinsella etc. and reduced the abundance of Helicobacter and Oscillibacter etc. In addition, the content of acetic acid and butyric acid in metabolites of short-chain fatty acids had increased, which had the effect of regulating blood glucose level. The results have showed that 70% ethanol extract of Gracilaria (GE) and complex protease hydrolysate of Gracilaria (GH) are potential marine foods for maintaining blood sugar health.

Evaluation of chalcones as new glycogen phosphorylase inhibitors – an in-vitro and in-silico approach

Diabetes mellitus (DM) remains one of the pivotal diseases that have drawn the attention of researchers recently and during the last few decades. Due to its devastating symptoms, attempts to develop new drugs with mild side effects have resulted in a number of drugs that are functioning through various mechanisms. Among these, Glycogen phosphorylase (GP) inhibitors emerged as a new strategy for combating DM. GP is an enzyme that regulates blood glucose levels; it catalyses the breakdown of glycogen to glucose-1-phosphate in the liver and tissues with high and fluctuating energy demands. In the present research, we evaluate the possibility of type 2 diabetes therapy with the help of chalcones which are known to have antidiabetic activities. For this purpose, 29 chalcones were modelled, synthesised and investigated for their inhibitory activity against GP using in-vitro methods. Compounds 1, 2, and 3 were found to be the most potent compounds with IC50 values 26.6, 57.1 and 75.6 µM respectively. The observed results were further validated using in-silico methods. Molecular docking simulation revealed interaction patterns that explain the structure-activity relationships of the compounds with GP. Molecular dynamic (MD) simulation demonstrated a stable complex formation between compound 1 and GP through lower value and uniformity in root mean square deviation (RMSD) of the complex and root mean square fluctuation (RMSF) of the protein Cα.

Navigating Weight Management with Stevia: Insights into Glycemic Control

Stevia is a natural sweetener that has gained attention as a potential sugar substitute for glycemic control and weight management. Extensive research has shown that high sugar consumption is linked to obesity, dental caries, and other health issues. Stevia, derived from the Stevia rebaudiana plant, offers sweetness without calories and has a favorable glycemic profile. Studies have demonstrated its effectiveness in regulating blood glucose levels and reducing overall sugar and caloric intake. Consumer attitudes suggest a positive reception of Stevia as a sugar substitute among health-conscious individuals. However, further research is needed to understand its long-term effects and consumer sentiments. Future investigations should prioritize human clinical trials, targeted studies in diabetic populations, and exploration of Stevia’s interaction with gut microbiota, among other aspects. Stevia shows promise as a health-conscious alternative in glycemic control and weight management.

2-Styrylchromones as inhibitors of α-amylase and α-glucosidase enzymes for the management of type 2 diabetes mellitus

α-amylase and α-glucosidase are key enzymes implicated in carbohydrate digestion and their inhibition has been suggested as a powerful approach for regulating blood glucose levels. The present work describes for the first time their inhibition by a group of twelve hydroxylated 2-styrylchromones (2-SC). Our findings revealed that 2-SC display strong systematic inhibition of α-glucosidase rather than α-amylase activity. The number and position of the hydroxy groups in the chromone moiety further modulate the inhibitory profile of the studied compounds, and the derivatives bearing one catechol unit are efficient inhibitors of both enzymes. Enzyme kinetic studies indicate that all active compounds act as competitive inhibitors of α-amylase while most of them behave as non-competitive inhibitors of α-glucosidase. The results are promising and pave the way to further deciphering the potential of this class of compounds as a suitable alternative for the management of type 2 diabetes and its complications.

Preparative agarose gel electrophoresis for reducing matrix interferences of organoid cell medium prior to LC-MS analysis of insulin

Organoids are 3D cell cultures with microanatomies mimicking aspects of real organs, useful for e.g. animal-free studies of development, disease, and drug discovery. The cell medium of organoid models of Langerhans islets, regulating blood glucose levels by insulin secretion, can be analyzed by liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry (LC-MS). However, organoid medium complexity is a major challenge, as matrix interferences can reduce sensitivity and selectivity, even with optimized LC-MS conditions. By applying preparative agarose gel electrophoresis-electrodialysis (PGE-ED), we were able to decrease the cell medium background signal, allowing for reduced interferences affecting LC-MS analysis of human insulin.