Regular Endurance Training Research Articles

DNA methylation of exercise-responsive genes differs between trained and untrained men

BackgroundPhysical activity is well known for its multiple health benefits and although the knowledge of the underlying molecular mechanisms is increasing, our understanding of the role of epigenetics in long-term training adaptation remains incomplete. In this intervention study, we included individuals with a history of > 15 years of regular endurance or resistance training compared to age-matched untrained controls performing endurance or resistance exercise. We examined skeletal muscle DNA methylation of genes involved in key adaptation processes, including myogenesis, gene regulation, angiogenesis and metabolism.ResultsA greater number of differentially methylated regions and differentially expressed genes were identified when comparing the endurance group with the control group than in the comparison between the strength group and the control group at baseline. Although the cellular composition of skeletal muscle samples was generally consistent across groups, variations were observed in the distribution of muscle fiber types. Slow-twitch fiber type genes MYH7 and MYL3 exhibited lower promoter methylation and elevated expression in endurance-trained athletes, while the same group showed higher methylation in transcription factors such as FOXO3, CREB5, and PGC-1α. The baseline DNA methylation state of those genes was associated with the transcriptional response to an acute bout of exercise. Acute exercise altered very few of the investigated CpG sites.ConclusionsEndurance- compared to resistance-trained athletes and untrained individuals demonstrated a different DNA methylation signature of selected skeletal muscle genes, which may influence transcriptional dynamics following a bout of acute exercise. Skeletal muscle fiber type distribution is associated with methylation of fiber type specific genes. Our results suggest that the baseline DNA methylation landscape in skeletal muscle influences the transcription of regulatory genes in response to an acute exercise bout.

The Improvement in Exercise Performance during Reduced Muscle Mass Exercise is Associated with an Increase in Femoral Blood Flow in Older and Younger Endurance-Trained Athletes.

This study investigated whether the improved performance observed with maximal self-paced single-leg (SL), compared with double-leg (DL) cycling, is associated with enhanced femoral blood flow and/or altered tissue oxygenation. The hyperaemic response to exercise was assessed in younger and older athletes. Power output was measured in 12 older (65 ± 4 y) and 12 younger (35 ± 5 y) endurance-trained individuals performing 2 x 3 min maximal self-paced exercise using SL and DL cycling. Blood flow (BF) in the femoral artery was assessed using Doppler ultrasound and muscle oxygenation was measured using near-infrared spectroscopy on the vastus lateralis. SL cycling elicited a greater power output (295 ± 83 vs 265 ± 70 W, P < 0.001) and peak femoral BF (1749.1 ± 533.3 vs 1329.7 ± 391.7 ml/min, P < 0.001) compared with DL cycling. Older individuals had a lower peak BF in response to exercise (1355.4 ± 385.8 vs 1765.2 ± 559.6 ml/min, P = 0.019) compared with younger individuals. Peak BF in response to exercise was correlated with power output during SL (r = 0.655, P = 0.002) and DL (r = 0.666, P = 0.001) cycling. The greater exercise performance during SL compared with DL cycling may be partly explained by a greater hyperaemic response when reducing active muscle mass. Despite regular endurance training, older athletes had a lower femoral BF in response to maximal self-paced exercise compared with younger athletes.

The Impact of Regular Physical Exercise on Psychopathology, Cognition, and Quality of Life in Patients Diagnosed with Schizophrenia: A Scoping Review.

The presence of less healthy lifestyle habits among individuals diagnosed with schizophrenia which can contribute to the escalation of physical disorders and exacerbation of psychological symptoms is well documented. The present scoping review aims to synthesize and evaluate the available evidence regarding the impact of regular physical exercise on psychopathology, cognition, and quality of life (QoL) in patients diagnosed with schizophrenia. A literature search was performed across Web of Science, SCOPUS, PubMed, and SPORTDiscus for randomized control trials published up to April 2022. Two independent reviewers applied the selection criteria and a third reviewer resolved discrepancies. A total of twelve studies were included, of which nine used endurance training and three used concurrent training (one of these additionally used resistance training). The results reveal benefits of various modalities of supervised regular exercise in the psychopathology of schizophrenia. Furthermore, regular endurance training seems to improve cognitive function in patients with schizophrenia and promote their QoL; however, results are inconclusive with respect to this last variable. The assessment of methodological quality in the reviewed articles indicates a high overall risk of bias, particularly in relation to deviations from intended interventions and the selection of reported results. Furthermore, an assessment of exercise reporting revealed that only 5 out of 19 items were fulfilled in more than 50% of the articles. Future research is needed to evaluate the effects of different training modalities and the optimal dose-response relationship in patients diagnosed with schizophrenia.

Effects of a Regular Endurance Training Program on Running Economy and Biomechanics in Runners.

A regular endurance training program may elicit different adaptations compared to an isolated training method. In this study, we analyzed the effects of 8 weeks of a regular endurance training program on running economy (RE), particularly neuromuscular and biomechanical parameters, in runners of different athletic abilities. Twenty-four male runners were divided into two groups: well-trained (n=12) and recreational (n=12). Both groups completed a 4-min running bout at 13 and 17 km·h-1, respectively, for the recreational and well-trained group, and a 5-jump plyometric test pre-post intervention. During the training program, participants completed low-intensity continuous sessions, high-intensity interval training sessions, and auxiliary strength training sessions. RE, measured as oxygen cost and energy cost, decreased by 6.15% (p=0.006) and 5.11% (p=0.043), respectively, in the well-trained group. In the recreational group, energy cost of running, respiratory exchange ratio, and leg stiffness decreased by 5.08% (p=0.035), 7.61% (p=0.003), and 10.59% (p=0.017), respectively, while ground contact time increased by 3.34% (p=0.012). The maximum height of the 5-jump plyometric test decreased by 4.55% (p=0.018) in the recreational group. We suggest that 8 weeks of regular endurance training leads to an improvement of ~5% in RE in recreational and well-trained runners with different physiological adaptations between groups and few changes in biomechanical and neuromuscular parameters only in recreational runners.

Targeted Metabolomics in High Performance Sports: Differences between the Resting Metabolic Profile of Endurance- and Strength-Trained Athletes in Comparison with Sedentary Subjects over the Course of a Training Year.

Little is known about the metabolic differences between endurance and strength athletes in comparison with sedentary subjects under controlled conditions and about variation of the metabolome throughout one year. We hypothesized that (1) the resting metabolic profile differs between sedentary subjects and athletes and between perennially endurance- and strength-trained athletes and (2) varies throughout one year of training. We performed quantitative, targeted metabolomics (Biocrates MxP® Quant 500, Biocrates Life Sciences AG, Innsbruck, Austria) in plasma samples at rest in three groups of male adults, 12 strength-trained (weightlifters, 20 ± 3 years), 10 endurance-trained athletes (runners, 24 ± 3 years), and 12 sedentary subjects (25 ± 4 years) at the end of three training phases (regeneration, preparation, and competition) within one training year. Performance and anthropometric data showed significant (p < 0.05) differences between the groups. Metabolomic analysis revealed different resting metabolic profiles between the groups with acetylcarnitines, di- and triacylglycerols, and glycerophospho- and sphingolipids, as well as several amino acids as the most robust metabolites. Furthermore, we observed changes in free carnitine and 3-methylhistidine in strength-trained athletes throughout the training year. Regular endurance or strength training induces changes in the concentration of several metabolites associated with adaptations of the mitochondrial energy and glycolytic metabolism with concomitant changes in amino acid metabolism and cell signaling.

Endurance Training and Cardiovascular Health: Mechanism and Clinical Implications

Introduction and objective:&#x0D; Cardiovascular diseases are the leading cause of death worldwide, but regular physical activity can help reduce the risk of heart disease. Intensive endurance training brings many undeniable benefits but recently there have been scientific studies regarding potential complications that this type of physical activity may cause. This publication attempts to analyze whether the intensity of endurance training can reach a level at which it becomes harmful to the health of athletes.&#x0D; Materials and methods:&#x0D; This article reviews the literature on the impact of physical activity on cardiovascular health, with particular emphasis on endurance training. Articles were searched by key words, e.g. endurance training, cardiovascular health, marathon, running, cycling in various configurations, in Pubmed, Medline, Google Scholar databases.&#x0D; Actual state of knowledge:&#x0D; Regular physical activity is commonly regarded as the best preventive factor for cardiovascular diseases. Intensive endurance training significantly increases the efficiency of the cardiovascular system. Despite the significant benefits of regular endurance training, scientific reports suggest that athletes practicing this type of activity are more prone to developing certain cardiovascular disorders, such as coronary heart disease, atrial fibrillation, sinus bradycardia, and myocardial fibrosis.&#x0D; Colclusion:&#x0D; Regular and moderate aerobic physical activity is key to maintain optimal health. Endurance athletes develop a series of adaptations in the cardiovascular system, exhibit greater survival rates, and are less likely to experience sudden cardiac death compared to those who do not engage in regular physical activity. There is evidence suggesting a higher incidence of certain cardiovascular complications compared to healthy individuals who do not engage in sports. The reasons for these changes and their impact should be the subject of further research.

THE PREVALENCE OF MUSCULOSKELETAL CONDITIONS AMONG HIP SURGEONS IN THE UNITED KINGDOM: A CROSS-SECTIONAL STUDY

Musculoskeletal disorders have been recognised as common occupational risks for all orthopaedic surgeons. The nature of tasks performed by hip surgeons often requires both forceful and repetitive manoeuvres, potentially putting them at higher risk of musculoskeletal injuries compared to other orthopaedic sub-specialities. This study aimed to investigate the prevalence of musculoskeletal conditions among hip surgeons and evaluate the association between their workplace and lifestyle factors and musculoskeletal health.An online questionnaire consisting of 22 questions was distributed to UK-based consultant hip surgeons via email and social media platforms. This survey was completed by 105 hip surgeons.The mean age of the respondents was 49 years (range 35–69), with an average of 12 years (range 1–33) in service. 94% were full-time and 6% worked part-time. 49% worked at a district general hospital, 49% at a tertiary centre and 4% at a private institution. 80% were on the on-call rota and 69% had additional trauma commitments. 91% reported having one or more, 50% with three or more and 13% with five or more musculoskeletal conditions. 64% attributed their musculoskeletal condition to their profession. The most common musculoskeletal conditions were base of thumb arthritis (22%), subacromial impingement (20%), degenerative lumbar spine (18%) and medial or lateral epicondylitis (18%). 60% stated that they experienced lower back pain. Statistical analysis showed that being on the on-call rota was significantly (P&lt;0.001) associated with a higher musculoskeletal burden. Regular resistance and/or endurance training and BMI&lt;30 were statistically significant protective factors (P&lt;0.001).Over the last few decades, most of the hip-related literature has focused on improving outcomes in patients, yet very little is known about the impact of hip surgery on the musculoskeletal health of hip surgeons. This study highlights a high prevalence of musculoskeletal conditions among UK-based hip surgeons. Hip surgeons have a pivotal role to play in the ongoing recovery of elective orthopaedics services. There is a pressing need for the identification of preventative measures and improvement in the surgical environment of our hip surgeons.

Twelve-week treadmill endurance training in mice is associated with upregulation of interleukin-15 and natural killer cell activation and increases apoptosis rate in Hepa1-6 cell-derived mouse hepatomas.

Regular exercise reduces the risk of malignancy and decreases the recurrence of cancer. However, the mechanisms behind this protection remain to be elucidated. Natural killer (NK) cells are lymphocytes of the innate immune system, which play essential roles in immune defense and effectively prevent cancer metastasis. Physical exercise can increase the activity of NK cells. Interleukin-15 (IL-15) is the best-studied cytokine activator of NK cells, and it was shown to have many positive functional effects on NK cells to improve antitumor responses. The aim of this study was to clarify the possible important mechanisms behind endurance exercise-induced changes in NK cell function, which may be highly correlated with IL-15. An animal model was used to study IL-15 expression level, tumor volume, cancer cell apoptosis, and NK cell infiltration after treadmill exercise. Although IL-15 was highly expressed in skeletal muscle, treadmill exercise further elevated IL-15 levels in plasma and muscle (P<0.05). In addition, tumor weight and volume of tumor-bearing mice were decreased (P<0.05), and liver tumor cell apoptosis was increased after 12 weeks of treadmill exercise (P<0.05). NK cell infiltration was upregulated in tumors from treadmill exercise mice, and the level of interferon-gamma (IFN-γ) and IL-15 were higher than in sedentary mice (P<0.05). The study indicated that regular endurance training can reduce cancer risk, which was related to increased IL-15 expression, activation of the immune killing effect of NK cells, and promotion of tumor cell apoptosis, which can ultimately control tumor growth.

Uphill versus downhill high-intensity training effectiveness in preserving vascular function and exercise performance in runners who reduce their regular endurance training.

The COVID-19 restrictions have limited outdoor physical activities. High-intensity training (HIT) may be a valid indoor alternative. We tested whether an indoor HIT is effective in maintaining vascular function and exercise performance in runners who reduce their usual endurance training, and whether a downhill HIT is as effective as an uphill one for such purposes. Sixteen runners performed the same 6-week HIT either uphill (UP, eight runners) or downhill (DOWN, eight runners). Eight runners continuing their usual endurance training acted as a control group (CON). The following data were collected before vs after our HIT: vascular conductance during rapid leg vasodilation to assess vasodilation capacity; V̇O2max through running incremental test to exhaustion; 2000m running time; neuromuscular indexes related to lower-limb muscle strength. Both uphill and downhill HIT failed in maintaining the pre-HIT leg vasodilation capacity compared to CON, which was, however, blunted more after uphill than downhill HIT. V̇O2max and 2000m time were similar after downhill HIT compared to CON, and augmented after uphill HIT compared to CON and DOWN. Indexes of lower-limb muscle strength were similar before vs after HIT and among groups. Our HIT was ineffective in maintaining the pre-HIT leg vasodilation capacity compared to runners continuing their usual low-intensity endurance training, but did not lead to reductions in V̇O2max, 2000m time performance, and indexes related to lower-limb muscle strength. Our data show an appealing potential for preserving exercise performance with low cardiorespiratory effort via downhill running.

How to Unmask Hidden Cardiovascular Diseases through Preparticipation Screening in Master Athletes?

Cardiovascular disease (CVD) is the most common cause of death globally in general population. Sport activity is an effective and recommended non-pharmacological method of CVD prevention. Presently, the group of people practicing sport regularly is constantly growing due to increasing awareness of its health benefits. However, vigorous-intensity exercises can reveal previously undetected disease. Master athletes over 35 years old are particularly exposed to sudden cardiac death (SCD) mainly in the course of coronary artery disease (CAD). Another common disease in veteran athletes is hypertension. It is known that regular endurance training can lower blood pressure at rest, so arterial hypertension in athletes is usually masked by adaptation to effort. Despite of normal or high-normal blood pressure in the office, the values during exercises and in ambulatory blood pressure monitoring (ABPM) can exceed the norm. Hidden hypertension have the same negative impact on cardiovascular system. It increases the risk of (1) atherosclerosis and therefore myocardial infarction or stroke, (2) left ventricular hypertrophy with diastolic and/or systolic heart failure, myocardial fibrosis and ventricular arrhythmias, (3) left atrial enlargement increasing the risk of atrial fibrillation and stroke and (4) aortic dilation/dissection. Through these complications hypertension can lead to SCD during sport activities, therefore it is important to recognize this disease early and start a proper treatment. To enable safe participation in sports competition detailed guidelines for screening were created, but they mainly concern CAD. We propose an additional scheme of screening in master athletes including the detection of hidden hypertension to prevent its consequences.

Body Composition, Fasting Blood Glucose and Lipidemic Indices Are Not Primarily Determined by the Nutritional Intake of Middle-Aged Endurance Trained Men-Another "Athletes' Paradox"?

Systematic, regular high-volume endurance training induces significant metabolic adaptations in glucose and lipids metabolism, which seems to affect the negative impact of unhealthy nutrition, at least in animal models. The present study aimed to investigate the main determinants of body composition, blood glucose and lipids concentrations between middle-aged sedentary individuals (Sed) and well-trained endurance athletes (Run), both following an unhealthy high-fat diet. In thirty-five Sed (Age: 54.0 ± 6.6 yrs, Body Mass: 77.1 ± 10.5 kg, BMI: 31.3 ± 6.0 kg·m−2) and thirty-six Run (Age: 51.6 ± 5.2 yrs, Body Mass: 85.8 ± 3.4 kg, BMI: 23.2 ± 1.8 kg·m−2), body composition, nutritional intake, energy expenditure, resting metabolic rate (RMR), respiratory exchange ratio (RER), and blood glucose and lipids concentrations were evaluated. Multiple linear regression analyses revealed that body composition, blood glucose and lipids’ concentrations in the Run group were primarily determined by the energy expenditure (B: −0.879 to −1.254), while in the Sed group, by their energy intake (B:−0.754 to 0.724). In conclusion, it seems that in well-trained endurance middle-aged athletes, body composition, blood glucose, and lipids concentrations seem to be determined by their training-induced daily energy expenditure and not by their nutritional intake per se. At the same time, nutrition is the primary determinant in aged-matched sedentary individuals, even if they both follow high-fat diets.

MRI Characterization Of Skeletal Muscle Size And Fatty Infiltration In Long-term Trained And Untrained Individuals

PURPOSE: We aimed to investigate various body composition measures in highly trained and untrained men and women using whole-body magnetic resonance imaging (MRI). Additionally, correlations between these measures and skeletal muscle gene expression were performed. METHODS: Thirty-six individuals were included: endurance-trained men (ME, n = 8) and women (FE, n = 7), strength-trained men (MS, n = 7) or untrained control men (MC, n = 8) and women (FC, n = 6). Whole-body MRI scans were performed, and m. vastus lateralis biopsies were collected at rest. Cross-sectional area (CSA) and infiltration of muscular adipose tissue (IMAT) were calculated from Mm. pectoralis, M. erector spinae and M. multifidus combined, Mm. quadriceps, and Mm. triceps surae (TS). RESULTS: ME and FE had significantly lower liver fat fraction, visceral fat volume and total body fat mass relative to body weight than MC and FC, respectively. MS had larger CSA across all four muscle groups and less IMAT in all muscles apart from TS (p = 0.053) compared with MC. ME was found to have less IMAT across all muscle groups and a larger CSA in three of the four muscle groups compared with MC. However, the only difference in IMAT between FE and FC was found in Mm. pectoralis. Functional analysis of muscle gene expression of the top 50 genes that correlated most strongly with IMAT revealed a significant enrichment of the AMPK-pathway. CONCLUSIONS: This study suggests that both regular endurance and resistance training are, over time, appropriate to maintain muscle mass and reduced skeletal muscle infiltration of adipose tissue in male adults. Although a significant relationship between IMAT and the AMPK pathway was found, future studies are needed to determine the mechanism by which infiltration of adipose tissue is regulated in muscle.

MRI characterization of skeletal muscle size and fatty infiltration in long-term trained and untrained individuals.

This study investigated body composition measures in highly trained and untrained individuals using whole‐body magnetic resonance imaging (MRI). Additionally, correlations between these measures and skeletal muscle gene expression were performed. Thirty‐six individuals were included: endurance‐trained males (ME, n = 8) and females (FE, n = 7), strength‐trained males (MS, n = 7), and untrained control males (MC, n = 8) and females (FC, n = 6). MRI scans were performed, and resting M. vastus lateralis (VL) biopsies were subjected to RNA sequencing. Liver fat fraction, visceral adipose tissue volume (VAT), total body fat, and total lean tissue were measured from MRI data. Additionally, cross‐sectional area (CSA) and fat signal fraction (FSF) were calculated from Mm. pectoralis, M. erector spinae and M. multifidus combined, Mm. quadriceps, and Mm. triceps surae (TS). Liver fat fraction, VAT, and total body fat relative to body weight were lower in ME and FE compared with corresponding controls. MS had a larger CSA across all four muscle groups and lower FSF in all muscles apart from TS compared with MC. ME had a lower FSF across all muscle groups and a larger CSA in all muscles except TS than MC. FE athletes showed a higher CSA in Mm. pectoralis and Mm. quadriceps and a lower CSA in TS than FC with no CSA differences found in the back muscles investigated. Surprisingly, the only difference in FSF between FE and FC was found in Mm. pectoralis. Lastly, correlations between VL gene expression and VL CSA as well as FSF showed that genes positively correlated with CSA revealed an enrichment of the oxidative phosphorylation and thermogenesis pathways, while the genes positively correlated with FSF showed significant enrichment of the spliceosome pathway. Although limited differences were found with training in females, our study suggests that both regular endurance and resistance training are useful in maintaining muscle mass, reducing adipose tissue deposits, and reducing muscle fat content in males.

The Effect of Different Periodization and Modes of Concurrent Strength and Endurance Training on Double Poling Performance and Body Composition in Adolescent Cross-Country Skiers.

The aim of the study was to compare the effects of different types and periodization of strength training on body composition and maximal aerobic performance in 10-week training period in adolescent XC skiers. Twenty-eight adolescent competitive cross-country skiers, including 10 females (age 17.9 ± 1.8 years; body mass 69.6 ± 9.7 kg; height 1.77 ± 0.1 m; training experience 8.6 ± 3.2 years) took part in this study. Pre-and post-intervention performance was measured with the incremental exercise test (Pmax) on a double poling ski ergometer. Changes in body composition were measured with DXA. In addition to regular endurance training, experimental group one (EXP1) performed maximal and explosive strength training two times per week, experimental group two (EXP2) performed maximal and explosive strength training 1–3 times per week, and the traditional (TRAD) group performed low intensity–high volume strength training 2 times per week. Increases in arm, trunk, and overall lean mass were found in TRAD (p < 0.05). Increases in arm lean-mass was found in EXP1 (p < 0.05), while no changes in body composition occurred in EXP2 (p ≥ 0.05). Pmax improved significantly in all groups (p < 0.05). Changes in body mass, overall and arm lean mass was related to changes in absolute performance (W; p < 0.05), while no relationships were found between changes in body composition parameters and relative performance (W/kg; p ≥ 0.05). In conclusion, different periodization of strength training led to similar improvements in double poling ergometer performance, but resulted in different changes in body composition (lean mass) in adolescent cross-country skiers.

Continuous Protein Supplementation Reduces Acute Exercise-Induced Stress Markers in Athletes Performing Marathon.

The aim of this study was to determine the changes in endurance performance and metabolic, hormonal, and inflammatory markers induced by endurance stress (marathon race) in a combined strategy of training and dietary protein supplementation. The study was designed as a randomised controlled trial consisting of regular endurance training without and with a daily intake of a soy protein-based supplement over a three-month period in 2 × 15 (10 males and 5 females per group) endurance-trained adults. Body composition (body mass, BMI, and fat mass) was determined, and physical fitness was measured by treadmill ergometry at baseline and after 3 months of intervention; changes in exercise-induced stress and inflammatory markers (CK, myoglobin, interleukin-6, cortisol, and leukocytes) were also determined before and after a marathon competition; eating behaviour was documented before and after intervention by a three-day diet diary. Although no significant influence on endurance performance was observed, the protein supplementation regime reduced the exercise-induced muscle stress response. Furthermore, a protein intake of ≥20% of total energy intake led to a lower-level stress reaction after the marathon race. In conclusion, supplementary protein intake may influence exercise-induced muscle stress reactions by changing cellular metabolism and inflammatory pathways.

HRV-Based Training for Improving VO2max in Endurance Athletes. A Systematic Review with Meta-Analysis.

This review aimed to synthesize evidence regarding interventions based on heart rate variability (HRV)-guided training for VO2max improvements in endurance athletes and address the issues that impact this performance enhancement. The Cochrane Central Register of Controlled Trials (CENTRAL), MEDLINE, EMBASE, CINAHL Complete, the Web of Science Core Collection, Global Health, Current Contents Connect, and the SciELO citation index were searched. Inclusion criteria were: randomized controlled trials; studies with trained athletes enrolled in any regular endurance training; studies that recruited men, women, and both sexes combined; studies on endurance training controlled by HRV; studies that measured performance with VO2max. A random-effects meta-analysis calculating the effect size (ES) was used. Moderator analyses (according to the athlete’s level and gender) and metaregression (according to the number of participants in each group) were undertaken to examine differences in ES. HRV-guided training and control training enhanced the athletes’ VO2max (p < 0.0001), but the ES for the HRV-guided training group was significantly higher (p < 0.0001; ESHRVG-CG = 0.187). The amateur level and female subgroup reported better and significant results (p < 0.0001) for VO2max. HRV-guided training had a small (ES = 0.402) but positive effect on endurance athlete performance (VO2max), conditioned by the athlete’s level and sex.

Thresholds and Upper Limits of Training-Induced Cardiovascular, Respiratory, Immune, and Musculoskeletal Adaptations in Able-Bodied People and Neurologically Impaired Patients

The benefits of exercising are well-recognized–experts and governmental health agencies agree that regular endurance training ...

Effects of Endurance Workouts on Thyroid Hormone Metabolism and Biochemical Markers in Athletes

Objective: Exercises can create differences in the organism by affecting the hormonal system and hemostasis. Evaluation of hormonal changes along with physical activity, many factors such as physical and physiological state of athletes, environmental factors and nutritional status are effective and affect the performance. In this study, as a result of endurance workouts, chronic changes in athletes' thyroid hormone metabolism and biochemical markers were evaluated. Method: 16 male athletes formed the research group. The athletes participating in the study received endurance training for 60 minutes a day, three days a week for 12 weeks. Blood samples were taken from the athletes before the session and after the session. The levels of Thyroid hormones, iron, iron binding capacity, UIBC, erythrocyte, leukocyte and platelet were determined in blood samples. Data were considered by using SPSS statistical package software. Findings: A significant difference was observed in athletes' thyroid hormone values as a result of the training sessions: Thyroid Stimulating Hormone (TSH), Thyroxine (T4) and Triiodothyronine (T3) levels were detected to be statistically different in pre-post test (p <0,05). As a result of the applied workouts changes were observed in the erythrocyte, leukocyte and platelet values of the athletes, and a significant difference was seen in general (p <0,05). Results: Applied regular and long-term endurance training created differences in athletes' thyroid hormone metabolism and biochemical markers. It is thought that these findings will positively affect the fight against the stress experienced by athletes during their competitions and increase their performance.

Sitting-induced Endothelial Dysfunction Is Prevented In Endurance-trained Individuals

PURPOSE: Prolonged sitting impairs leg endothelial function, which seems to be mediated by a sustained reduction in blood flow-induced shear stress. However, whether regular endurance training is effective in preventing sitting-induced leg endothelial dysfunction remains largely unknown. Herein, we tested the hypothesis that sitting-induced leg endothelial dysfunction is prevented in high endurance-trained individuals. METHODS: The endurance-trained group comprised 11 male collegiate cyclists (age, 19.7 ± 0.6 years; height, 168.4 ± 6.2 cm; weight, 62.7 ± 7.0 kg; body mass index, 22.1 ± 2.4 kg/m2), and the untrained group comprised 9 male with no regular endurance training (age, 21.1 ± 1.8 years; height, 170.1 ± 6.6 cm; weight, 72.2 ± 8.1 kg; body mass index, 24.8 ± 1.5 kg/m2). Peak oxygen uptake (VO2peak) was initially determined in all participants using incremental exercise test (37.9 ± 4.7 mL/min/kg in the untrained group vs. 60.5 ± 3.6 mL/min/kg in the endurance-trained group). At second visit, the popliteal artery flow-mediated dilation (%FMD) was assessed before and after a 3-h sitting period. During the sitting period, the popliteal artery diameter and blood velocity were measured every hour. RESULTS: The popliteal artery shear rate was significantly and similarly reduced during the sitting period in both groups (the untrained group and the endurance-trained group: 51.9 ± 19.2 sec-1 vs. 58.3 ± 23.5 sec-1 at pre-sit, 25.5 ± 10.9 sec-1 vs. 25.5 ± 15.2 sec-1 at 1h during sitting period, 19.4 ± 7.4 sec-1 vs. 27.5 ± 12.3 sec-1 at 2h during sitting period, 21.4 ± 8.1 sec-1 vs. 20.8 ± 8.3 sec-1 at 3h during sitting period, 29.4 ± 13.9 sec-1 vs. 29.7 ± 15.8 sec-1 at post-sit, P < 0.001). In a 3-h sitting, a significant impairment in popliteal artery %FMD was observed in the untrained group (4.5 ± 0.6 % vs. 1.6 ± 0.2 % P = 0.003), but it was prevented in the endurance-trained group (6.9 ± 0.7 % vs. 6.2 ± 1.3 %, P < 0.431). CONCLUSIONS: In conclusion, the present study revealed that sitting-induced leg endothelial dysfunction is preventable in endurance-trained individuals.

Decreased Pulse Wave Reflections Associated With Isometric Handgrip Training Improves Cognitive Function In Older Adults

PURPOSE: The purpose of this study was to investigate whether the decrease in pulse wave reflection and central systoloc blood pressure (SBP) as a result of isometric handgrip (IHG) training improves cognitive function in older adults. METHODS: Twenty-two men and women (age 75±7 years, mean±standard deviation) who were not actively involved in regular resistance or endurance training were randomly assigned to either the group that performed IHG training (IHG group, n=11) or the sedentary control group (CON group, n=11). The IHG exercise comprised four unilateral 2-min isometric contractions at 30% of maximal voluntary contraction using a programmed handgrip dynamometer with 1-min rest periods for 5 days per week for 8 weeks. Carotid augmentation index (AIx), an index of the magnitude of pulse wave reflections, and carotid SBP were non-invasively measured after resting in the supine position for at least 5 min in both groups before (baseline) and after 8 weeks of training using an arterial applanation tonometry system. Trail making test (TMT) Part A, which measures processing speed, and Part B, which assesses task shifting, were used to determine processing speed and flexibility in task switching and cognition. RESULTS: Carotid AIx and carotid SBP in the IHG group after training were significantly lower than baseline values, decreasing from 52±4 to 39±3 mmHg and from 148±5 to 137±5 mmHg, respectively (p<0.05 for both). TMT-A and TMT-B in the IHG group after training were significantly lower than baseline values, decreasing from 34.73±3.04 to 26.41±2.33 and from 60.52±5.25 to 49.39±4.51 s, respectively (p<0.05 for both). The carotid AIx, carotid SBP, TMT-A and TMT-B did not significantly change before and after training in the CON group. A significant positive correlation was observed between the amount of change in carotid AIx and the amount of change in TMT-A (r=0.603, p<0.05) and TMT-B (r=0.591, p<0.05). In addition, a significant positive correlation was observed between the amount of change in carotid SBP and the amount of change in TMT-A (r=0.736, p<0.01) and TMT-B (r=0.582, p<0.05). CONCLUSIONS: These results demonstrate that isometric handgrip exercises reduce carotid AIx and carotid SBP, which is associated with improving cognitive function.