Regular Censuses Research Articles

Tribal membership requirements and the demography of ‘old’ and ‘new’ Native Americans

This paper examines the twentieth-century population recovery of Native Americans with reference to urbanization, intermarriage, and differing definitions of the Native American population from census and tribal enrollment data. The recent increase in the Native American population reflected in regular US decennial censuses since 1960 is discussed in terms of changing self-identification of individuals as ‘Native American’. Also discussed are criteria for enrollment in Native American tribes, particularly blood quantum requirements. Census enumerations are compared with tribal enrollment data, and it is illustrated that a large proportion of those identifying as ‘Native American’ in the census are not enrolled in Native American tribes. Special attention is given to how Native American tribal enrollment criteria might impact future population size.

Les sources démographiques entre contrôle policier et utopies technocratiques [Le cas russe, 1870-1926

Alessandro Stanziani, The demographic source materials: Between police controls and technocratic utopianism. The case of Russia, 1870-1926. This paper starts out by recalling the debates, which began in 1865, by the Bolshevik government about the organization of regular censuses in Russia. It considers, in particular, questions concerning the administration of the census files and the criteria for defining the social groups. This paper also describes how the 1867 census was conducted and its impact on the statistical surveys, the economic policies and Russian historiography. The second section of this paper analyzes the 1916 census and the difficulties encountered by the tsarist regime during the First World War in conducting a population count, an essential factor, at that time, for the recruitement of soldiers and the organization of the labor force. The last section examines the setting up of the Soviet demographic and statistical machinery, discusses the controversies which opposed the government administrators to the professional statisticians, and studies the organization of the principal post-revolutionary surveys up to 1926.

Demographic data collection in less developed countries 1946-1996.

This evolution over the last 50 years of data collection systems in less developed countries is assessed. The progress made by civil registration systems has been extremely disappointing. Except in Central and South America, their role in providing vital rate estimates is still very limited. In contrast, the promulgation of regular population censuses has been a success, particularly in Africa. The relative merits and demerits of different types of demographic surveys are described. To some extent multi-round designs have given way to single-round surveys, such as the Demographic and Health Surveys (DHS). DHS-style enquiries are particularly suitable for evaluation of interventions but are less appropriate if the main aim is to measure vital rates.

Impacts of Predation and Intracohort Cannibalism in the Water Strider Gerris buenoi (Heteroptera: Gerridae)

were used to rear water striders from the first instar to the adult stage. Each enclosure had compartments for three treatments: group rearing with free access for predators, group rearing under predator exclusion, and individual rearing under predator exclusion. Overall survival was similar in the group and individual rearings under predator exclusion, but was substantially lower where predators were present, indicating that predation by non-gerrids influences juvenile survival more than intracohort cannibalism. Regular censuses showed that most mortality occurred in the first instar. Moreover, survival in group rearings was lower than in individual rearings during this period, indicating that intracohort cannibalism is a relevant factor in the first few days of larval life. The bugs from individual rearings had the lowest average adult weight and longest development time, whereas the fastest-maturing and heaviest adults were those from group rearings under predator exclusion. This indicates that factors other than competition for food are responsible for variation in growth performance. C. P. Klingenberg and J. R. Spence, Dept of Biological Sciences, Univ. of Alberta,

Winter Field Use by the European Starling Sturnus vulgaris: Habitat Preferences and the Availability of Prey

A regular census of an Oxfordshire farm, U.K., showed that the resident Starlings Sturnus vulgaris preferred to feed in established pasture fields. Fields which were closer to the daytime roost, provided feeding areas further from hedges, and had shorter swards were particularly preferred. The Starlings' habitat preferences could also be explained in terms of the availability of prey. This was quantified via the foraging behaviour of individual birds allowed to forage in small enclosures in a sub-sample of the fields available to the flock. The experimental birds' prey capture rates in each of the fields were significantly correlated with the observed flock foraging densities. This was a prey-specific effect: although the birds could have obtained a higher energy

Island Extinction Rates from Regular Censuses

Regular censuses conducted over a long time allow the calculation of both extinction and immigration rates. We present formulae for estimation of those rates. We use them on bird censuses of three British islands. These formulae improve on previous estimators of extinction but reaffirm that smaller populations have a higher probability of becoming extinct. On the other hand, they suggest no correlation between extinction rate and either body size or migratory status among birds. Censos regulares efectuados a lo largo de periodos prolongados de tiempo permiten el calculo tanto de tasas de extincion como de inmigracion. Presentamos formulas para la estimacion de dichas tasas. Las usamos en censos de aves de tres islas Britanicas. Estas formulas representan mejoras de estimadores de extincion anteriores, pero reafirman que poblaciones pequenas tienen una mayor probabilidad de extincion. Por otro lado, ellas sugieren una ausencia de correlacion entre la tasa de extincion y el tamano corporal o el estatus migratorio entre las aves.

Control of Poliomyelitis in Kuwait

The use of oral poliovirus vaccine (OPV) in the early 1960s marked the beginning of the State's effort in controlling poliomyelitis in Kuwait. During the next two decades, despite the vaccine's availability and use, the disease continued to cause disability and death. However, with the massive and sustained use of the trivalent OPV since 1963G and the introduction of neonatal supplementary immunization with monovalent type 1 (MOPV) in 1976G along with strengthening of the surveillance activities against poliomyelitis, the incidence of the paralytic disease began declining and by the mid-eighties it disappeared altogether. With no cases of paralytic poliomylelitis reported in Kuwait since 1986G, the disease is largely controlled. The epidemiology of poliomyelitis in Kuwait has been examined here in retrospect. The paper profiles about 3 1/2 decades (1958G to 1992G) of efforts that led to this impressive virtual elimination of poliomyelitis. In order to maintain this status and eventually achieve the goal of eradication without the rare occurrence of vaccine-associated paralysis, it is, in our opinion, necessary to adopt an approach of combined vaccination with the inactivated polio vaccine (IPV), preferably in the neonatal age, followed by OPV. Simultaneously, monitoring the presence and circulation of wild poliovirus in the environment and continuous surveillance should be carried out for timely intervention.

Censuses of Gulls at Two Sites along the Oregon Central Coast

GU11S (Larus spp)., and occasionally terns (Sterna spp.), regularly congregate at coastal river mouths. The size and species composition of these aggregations changes through the year. GU11 aggregation fluctuations over time have been reported for other areas of the western United States (Null 1970; Spear 1988; Tove and Fischer 1988), but there are no reports of regular censuses along the Oregon coast. Data on the fluctuations in numbers and species composition of gull flocks may provide a baseline for assessing the effects of environmental change on coastal gull and tern populations. In this study, I censused gulls and terns occurring at two sites, one for two years and another for one year, at small freshwater stream outflows along the Oregon central coast.

Life history of the golden ring cowry Cypraea annulus (Mollusca: gastropoda) on Okinawa Island, Japan

Two mark-recapture studies, regular population censuses, field observations, and laboratory culture were used to study the life history of the tropical marine gastropod Cypraea annulus Linnaeus, 1758 from Cape Maeda, Okinawa Island, from April 1984 to March 1986. In the field, the average rate of increase in shell length of marked juvenile snails was 1.0±0.3 mm wk-1 (N=13), with a maximum of 1.5 mm wk-1 (initial shell length 10.6 to 17.2 mm). In the laboratory, the maximum growth rate of juveniles was 3.0 mm wk-1 with food ad libitum. Snails with primordial teeth on the shells grew at a rate of 0.1 to 0.5 mm wk-1 for about 2 wk. The adults continued to grow at a similar rate for an additional 3 to 6 wk, and ceased detectable growth when some females started spawning egg masses. In the littoral zone on Okinawa Island, snails reproduced throughout the year. Egg masses brooded by three females (shell length 17.4 to 21.3 mm) in the field contained 90 000 to 133 000 ova. In the laboratory, brooding periods of three females lasted 6,8, and 9 d. The estimated average frequency of spawning was 5 egg masses female-1 yr-1. The mean shell length of adult females (20.3 mm) was significantly larger than that of adult males (19.6 mm). The life-history strategy of C. annulus is characterized by rapid growth, high fecundity, and repeated spawning throughout the year.

CENSSYS - a system for analyzing census-type data

The very first census of Norway was taken in the 1660ies. This census contains only the male population. The same is true for the next census, in 1701. In 1769 it was decided to count the women as well. This time the local authorities were asked to make the tables for their own area, and only submitted those. The government made the final statistics based on those aggregates. The same was true for the five censuses in the period 1815 1855. In 1801, 1865, 1875, 1891 and every 10th year from 1900 on ward, there are regular censuses with an increasing number of variables on every individual in the country. At the History department, University of Bergen, the census of 1801 was put into the mainframe. The database consists of records on 879 020 in dividuals. At the same institution, most of the 1660-material was put into the computer as well. The project is not yet finished. At the worlds northernmost university, Tromso, there is an institution called RHD, or Registreringsseniralen Jor historiske data (Norwegian Hi storical Data Archives). Their main objective is to make the censuses of 1875, 1891 and 1900 ready for computer analysis. They have finished ap prox. 1 million records. Other institutions has put some hundred thousand records on disk. All together, there are close to 3 million records on indi viduals in computers of Norwegian historians. This is a vast source of knowledge about Norwegian history. It has been used by a variety of peop le, but more by family historians, local historians, schools and by people generally interested in their past than by professional scientists. The main reason for this is that the former is content with unrefined material (lists), which is easily made, while the scientists want to do their own analysis. This can be done. There are programs to do it on the mainframes in Bergen and Tromso, but not without problems. Few historians seems to cope with the mainframes, even if they seem to do well on their PCs. Most of the programs were written in the late 70ies, and may be inconvenient by today's standard. And if you are situated in a different institution than the data, there may be nobody to ask when you have trouble. The old systems seem to have a too high a learning barrier. And for most people the so lution seems to be, do without it. This is a negative solution.

Input–Output Recipes in an Information Economy

Input–Output can contribute most successfully where industries are strongly interdependent, where individual sectors differ significantly in their input structures and where those input structures change slowly. These conditions have been satisfied for the most part in traditional goods-producing industries and particularly in manufacturing where regular and detailed Census information supplied a strong database for constructing tables. Service sectors, which have been growing in relative importance, are less dependent on other sectors and are apparently relatively uniform in input structure. These and high-tech sectors depend heavily on information flows and on highly specialized human capital both of which are harder to map than conventional goods. A sketch of specialization in SIC 7372, ‘Prepackaged Sofware’, illustrates some challenges encountered in attempts to describe the structure of the information economy. Three are singled out: difficulties in valuing and tracing information flows as contrasted...

Lek behaviour of a Hawaiian Drosophila: male spacing, aggression and female visitation

Male spacing, aggression and female visitation are described for a large lek of Drosophila confirmis within a mid-elevation rain forest on the island of Hawaii. The lek was located at a single tree of Pisonia umbellifera, and most of the males present defended individual leaves as mating territories. Regular censuses over a 3-week period in April 1985, revealed that the frequency with which males occupied a given leaf was unrelated to either the size or the orientation of the leaf but was related to its height above ground, lower leaves being occupied more frequently than higher leaves. During most censuses, 10–20% of the males were found perching on branches near lower leaves, which they invaded frequently. Males engaged in two types of aggressive interactions, chases and grapples, and both types occurred more frequently on lower leaves than on higher leaves. Both the spacing of males and the outcome of aggressive interactions were strongly size-dependent; larger males tended to occupy the lower leaves nd chase smaller males. Females were observed at the lek only infrequently and only during the middle of the day; between 1000 and 1500 hours, females were sighted approximately once an hour. Most of the leaves visited by females were among the lowest at the lek, and five of the six matings observed occurred on lower leaves. Data regarding male abundance and position and female visitation were also collected at the same lek site in October 1985, and are compared with the findings from April.

The Growth of Core Regions in the Third World

A survey of 46 3rd world countries was conducted to determine whether the movement toward the core i.e. the nerve center of the nation which was quite rapid in the 1950s and 1960s had slackened during the 1970s. The countries selected met 2 criteria: they had conducted a national census in 1980 or within a year or 2 of that date; and they possessed census data covering either all or most of the period since 1950. Together the countries in the survey include representatives of all the major regions of the 3rd world. The only significant omissions are in Africa where many nations fail to conduct regular national censuses. Geographers use the concept of the core to explain economic and demographic trends of a nations territory. In analyzing census data an approximation of the core region must be constructed by combining administrative districts. In the current survey an approximation somewhat larger than the actual core region was constructed for each country. In 3rd world nation with a well established dominant core region the population growth rate in the core typically exceeds the average rate for the entire nation by for the entire nation by from 10-20/1000 population/year. The results of this survey suggest that the 2 factors with the greatest power to explain trends in population concentration in the developing countries are the level of economic development and whether the country has a Communist political structure or a non-Communist structure. Although other factors have a role these 2 factors account for much of the observed variation among countries in the sample. Most of the great metropolitan regions of the developing countries continued to attract population during the 1970s at the same high rates that prevailed during the preceding 2 decades. The continuation of migration to the core suggests that the advatages of concentrating industry and population remain consederable. Yet there are enough countries where the pace of concentration has slowed to suggest conditions under which the growth of the core can be restrained. Migration toward the core can be limited by economic depression as in the case of Peru and Chile or by stringent measures imposed by a powerful state as in the case of Vietnam and Kampuchea. The flow has also been checked by improving the live of individuals who live in the periphery. In most instances such amelioration occurs only after the country has realized a threshold of economic production. Sri Lankas experience suggests that even a poor nation can improve the quality of life in the periphery and also that such an improvement may entail a substantial sacrifice of economic growth. The survey suggests that population concentration appears to be an almost inevitable concomitant of economic growth in the non-Communist world.

Natural parthenogenesis, larval and juvenile development, and geographical distribution of the coral reef asteroid Ophidiaster granifer

Ophidiaster granifer Lutken is a small cryptic coral reef asteroid found in the Indo-West Pacific. Its mode of reproduction, shown by aquarium observations and gonad histology, is parthenogenetic. This is the first confirmation of natural parthenogenesis in the phylum Echinodermata, despite many studies showing artificial parthenogenesis in echinoderms. Populations of O. granifer from Micronesia, New Guinea and the Great Barrier Reef consisted only of females: no testes or spermatogenesis were found in any individual at any stage of gonad development of ca 400 individuals. Regular year-round population censuses at Guam, Micronesia, revealed a distinct 0-year class which grew to sexual maturity in two years. There was an annual reproductive cycle with apparently-synchronous spawning in early winter. The large eggs, ca 0.6 mm diameter, develop into lecithotrophic larvae. Some larvae are planktonic, while some remain attached under the rocks. The latter develop through metamorphosis in situ. Parthenogenetic reproduction leading to both stationary and dispersed larvae may be related to the low fecundity and low population densities of this small asteroid.

Growth, Fecundity, and Mortality of Conus Pennaceus in Hawaii

The population biology of the tropical marine gastropod Conus pennaceus was studied off the island of Oahu in the Hawaiian Islands. Growth, fecundity, and survivorship rates were determined in the field through a combination of mark—recapture studies, regular population censuses, and direct count of ova produced by individual females. Individuals of C. pennaceus grow to a shell length of 15 mm in their 1st yr, and females may reproduce by the end of their 2nd yr at a shell length of between 20 and 25 mm. Females probably produce 1 egg mass/yr, and age—specific fecundity increases with increasing female size. By year 10, annual fecundity of females has increased to over 6000 ova, while shell growth has slowed to <1mm/yr. Although C. pennaceus has no planktonic larval stage, over 99.93% of all fertilized ova fail to survive their 1st yr. Subsequent mortality is constant at an annual rate of 0.419, and very few animals survive to the end of their 10th yr. The population examined remained relatively constant in size during the 22—mo study. This stability is attributed to the shape of the reproductive value curve of the population and to the ability of C. pennaceus to utilize a wide variety of prey species.

Family Income, Ill Health, and Medical Care of U.S. Children

rD G)g OVERTY and excessive mortality have been recogmzed as associated phenomena since regular censuses of populations were inaugurated almost two centuries ago (1). Early attempts at reducing the disadvantage caused by poverty were addressed by social and envi>se& ronmental measures, but toward the end of the nineteenth century biologically-oriented science raised the possibility of controlling these types of illnesses with medical means. By the 1920S poverty as an antecedent of disease had ceased to be a focus of attention as concern shifted to the lesser exposure of the poor to the benefits of modern medicine. Although hypotheses regarding the association between poverty and ill health reappeared coincident with the Depression of the 1930s, modem studies of the etiology of disease generally have not included measurements of social class, and even fewer have assessed the possible differential effects of poverty and near-poverty on disease occurrence and prognosis. It is, however, well recognized that poor adults are in worse health than other adults, and the relationship between poverty and higher death rates has been conclusively documented (2). A major impediment to understanding the relationship between poverty and disease derives from the fact that ill health can predispose to poverty as well as be caused by it, especially in adults. The nature of the relationship is simpler in children, as disease is not as likely to reduce family income to the same extent as is the case for adults. This paper summarizes the nature of the link between poverty and ill health in childhood as reflected in current studies, examines the relationship between poverty and the receipt of medical care, reviews the evidence that increased access to medical care reduces the disparity in health status between poor and non-poor children, and speculates on the possible effects

Energy limitation of hummingbird populations in tropical and temperate communities.

Regular censuses were conducted at both a temperate alpine and a tropical lowland site to determine seasonal changes in the composition of hummingbird communities and the availability of their food. From these data we calculated the total daily energy demand by the hummingbirds (Daily Energy Expenditure; DEE) and the daily energy supply available from floral nectar (Daily Energy Production; DEP) for each community census. Despite differences in habitat type and hummingbird community structure between these two sites, the hummingbird populations were often at or near carrying capacity. On average, all of the daily nectar production was cropped by the birds. We suggest that the supply/demand economics of coevolved mutualisms favour the evolution of complete resource use.

Nationalities and Minorities in the Independent State of Croatia

After the military defeat of April 1941, the Axis powers divided Yugoslavia. The Independent State of Croatia (Nezavisna Država Hrvatska, NDH) received the lion's share of the defunct state. At least in theory — since the NDH could claim no sovereignity in several regions — the new state included Croatia, Slavonia, Dalmatia, parts of the Littoral, Bosnia, Herzegovina, Srem (Sirmium), and parts of Vojvodina. It sheltered most of the nationalities inhabiting the old Yugoslavia, while conferring the honor of the state-making nation on Croatians only. Minorities, albeit not recognized as nationalities, expanded the list of non-Croatian people living in the NDH. Without a regular census, which was never taken in the country, we do not possess exact data for the population; furthermore, the published statistics were twisted to support nationalistic ambitions.

Le cycle de reproduction de la Glaréole Glareola nuchalis : ses déterminants écologiques et comportementaux

The reproduction of Glareola nuchalis has been studied during a 9 years’ period at M’Passa, near Makokou, Gabon (Lat. 0.4° N ; Long. 12° E). The observations deal with an isolated population, numbering between 93 and 200 individuals, and localized along about 3.5 km of the bed of the Ivindo river. Regular census was made of the number : (1) of individuals in the whole population ; (2) of “ bachelors” or non-breeding birds ; (3) of territorially-breeding pairs ; (4) of clutches ; (5) of fledglings in juvenile plumage. The colony roosts on two types of traditional sites : Site No. 1 : on the branches of an isolated tree, growing in the bed of the river, during the periods when the water level is high (October-December, and March-June). Site No. 2 : emerging rocks, when the water level is low (January-March and June-September). The non-breeding birds are gregarious, and are usually encountered in a single, compact group. The breeding birds are territorial, and strongly defend a large area surrounding the rock where the nest is located. During the breeding season, the recorded percentages of the breeding birds in the population were always low, ranging between 20 % of the total population in 1978 and only 4 % in 1977. There are two breeding seasons each year. The clutches are laid immediately after the emergence of the rocks, at the beginning of the two dry seasons. The date of the emergence of the rocks varies according to the year, differences of nearly two months having been noticed. The dates of the emergence of the rocks and the laying of the eggs are remarkably synchronized. The stimulus triggering the timing of the breeding season is discussed. Food accessibility is probably the ultimate factor. In effect, Glareola nuchalis is mostly a crepuscular bird, hunting in the early morning and late in the evening, apparently because its insect prey does not fly during sunshine. Nevertheless, during the two dry seasons, these prey fly even during the day when the sky is cloudy and the light poor ; this is a common situation, especially between June and September. Thus, the birds may hunt and feed the young quite regularly during the day in the course of the dry seasons — an impossible task during most of the rainy seasons, when hunting is restricted to the periods around sunrise and sunset. The proximate factor triggering the onset of gonad development may be a visual stimulus, namely the sight of the rocks emerging from the river. This type of stimulus would explain the remarkable synchronism between the emergence of the rocks, and the start of reproduction. The existence of a social stimulus for gonad development may be ruled out, since only a few days separate pair formation in a defended territory from egg laying. Population turnover seems low. Each clutch contains one or two eggs ; 30 clutches had one egg, 41 clutches had two eggs. Most of the eggs, laid on barren rock, are drowned or destroyed by predators. On the other hand, the young are protected by efficient morphological and behavioural adaptations. Census of the fledglings, after each breeding season, showed great annual variations. Thus, there were 38 fledglings in April 1978, while only 11 fledglings were recorded for the whole year 1977. Over a 9-year period, the average number was 25 fledglings annually for an average population of 150 individuals.

A technique for estimating life expectancy with crude vital rates

This paper describes a method of estimating life expectancy at birth on the basis of crude vital rates. The method is derived from stable population theory and it furnishes good estimates insofar as the current crude vital rates of a population are close to its intrinsic rates. This condition is generally met in closed populations which have not experienced sharp movements in fertility. The method is useful for estimating life expectancy in developing nations with good sample registration systems but for which information on age is of poor quality. It is also useful for estimating the movement of life expectancy in certain European nations in the period prior to regular census taking. There are a number of nations and regions in Europe for which long series of birth and death rates are available but for which census age counts are widely spaced.