Regression Of Stature Research Articles

Developing an automated skeletal phenotyping pipeline to leverage biobank-level medical imaging databases.

Collecting skeletal measurements from medical imaging databases remains a tedious task, limiting the research utility of biobank-level data. Here we present an automated phenotyping pipeline for obtaining skeletal measurements from DXA scans and compare its performance to manually collected measurements. A pipeline that extends the Advanced Normalization Tools (ANTs) framework was developed on 341 whole-body DXA scans of UK Biobank South Asian participants. A set of 10 measurements throughout the skeleton was automatically obtained via this process, and the performance of the method was tested on 20 additional DXA images by calculating percent error and concordance correlation coefficients (CCC) for manual and automated measurements. Stature was then regressed on the automated femoral and tibia lengths and compared to published stature regressions to further assess the reliability of the automated measurements. Based on percent error and CCC, the performance of the automated measurements falls into three categories: poor (sacral and acetabular breadths), variable (trunk length, upper thoracic breadth, and innominate height), and high (maximum pelvic aperture breadth, bi-iliac breadth, femoral maximum length, and tibia length). Stature regression plots indicate that the automated measurements reflect realistic body proportions and appear consistent with published data reflecting these relationships in South Asian populations. Based on the performance of this pipeline, a subset of measurements can be reliably extracted from DXA scans, greatly expanding the utility of biobank-level data for biological anthropologists and medical researchers.

Sample size and representational bias in bioarchaeology: A case study of stature estimation from medieval Prussia

AbstractFor bioarchaeological studies, a common approach to estimating stature is via regression formulae that are based on the scaling of skeletal elements relative to overall height. Both stature and the proportions of contributing elements may be affected by biocultural and ecological factors, and thus, it is generally preferable to apply population‐specific formulae when possible. Within bioarchaeology, the establishment of population‐specific regression formulae is complicated by the need to base formulae on a sufficiently large number of individuals for which all skeletal elements contributing to stature can be measured. Yet disciplinary conventions within bioarchaeology suggest the need for sample sizes that are larger than typical within related fields, and it is thus possible that disciplinary status quo has led to a systematic bias in the literature toward larger sites, regions with relatively good preservation, and populations associated with these aspects. To investigate the efficacy of combined‐sex stature regression formulae based on relatively small samples, this study calculated population‐specific formulae based on long bone length for 22 individuals from a late medieval Old Prussian cemetery at Bezławki, Poland. The relationship between stature and each of the predictor elements/measurements considered was strong, particularly for maximum femoral length (r = 0.976). For the latter measurement, a sample size as small as 18 produced accurate and precise stature estimates. Further, the Bezławki‐specific formula based on maximum femoral length provided estimates of the stature that performed better than or similar to formulae based on larger populations, supporting that population‐specific formulae may be warranted, even when based on small samples.

Stature estimation in forensic examinations using regression analysis: A likelihood ratio perspective

For the identification of decomposed dead bodies and skeletal remains, estimation of stature is of utmost importance. In estimating stature from the percutaneous bone lengths or skeletal remains, regression analysis has been the method of choice. Technically, as the regression line is just the best fit to the data, the estimate of stature differs from the actual stature, and this difference is reported in terms of the root mean square error (RMSE). The estimate using regression analysis is probabilistic in nature and there is a confidence interval about the prediction. This interval is mostly not reported in various studies, neither are the probable errors in estimation. In the likelihood ratio approach, absolute “matching” or “identification” is not possible and therefore, only the quantitative strength of evidence (strength of association in the present context) is given.The sample for the present study comprised of 344 young adults (172 females and 172 males) residing in the Shimla city of Himachal Pradesh State of north India. The data have been generated from anthropometric measurements of seven percutaneous bone lengths besides stature. The present study reports the regression equations for stature estimation as traditionally calculated, but additionally, it signifies the determination of the confidence intervals of the regression line as well as the confidence intervals of the prediction of stature. The study also shows that for the likelihood ratio estimation, the regression analysis needs to be flipped, i.e. instead of using regression of stature versus bone length; the regression of bone length versus stature should be used.Practical application of finding the likelihood ratio of a recovered bone to be associated with two missing persons of known stature has also been discussed in the current study. This approach is further extended to a general scenario, where the likelihood of a person of known stature is evaluated with reference to any other person chosen at random from the relevant population. The likelihood ratios arrived at, have been found to be generally low, meaning that the strength of association of stature and percutaneous bone length is not very high, and combining likelihood ratios from different methods of personal identification may be needed.

Secular change in adult stature of modern Greeks.

In Greece, during the late 19th and early 20th century, the rural population adopted a more or less urban lifestyle. Furthermore, the first half of the 20th century finds Greece involved in five major wars, including a civil war, and consequent financial deprivation. This study investigates how the socioeconomic changes in Greece, during this period of time, have affected the stature of its population. The Athens collection constitutes our sample with 189 adult individuals (104 males and 85 females). Stature was estimated with regression equations and secular change was evaluated by linear regression of stature with respect to the year of birth. Further analysis of our population sample was based on three time periods to explore the correlation between secular change and historical events. From 1879 to 1965, stature increased for both males and females. The subsequent analysis among different periods revealed that the male group exhibited a small although non-significant decline in stature during the years 1912 to 1950, which coincides with the long inter-war period. However, females appear less affected by the consequent deprivation. Our findings are consistent with earlier studies based on a much smaller time span. The negative effect of the economic and nutritional deprivation on stature as a result of warfare is apparent in our sample, at least for males. Furthermore, the positive effect of economic growth on stature is prominent for the entire population in the postwar period.

Stature in 19th and early 20th century Copenhagen. A comparative study based on skeletal remains

Individual stature depends on multifactorial causes and is often used as a proxy for investigating the biological standard of living. While the majority of European studies on 19th and 20th century populations are based on conscript heights, stature derived from skeletal remains are scarce. For the first time in Denmark this study makes a comparison between skeletal stature and contemporary Danish conscript heights and investigates stature of males and females temporally and between socially distinct individuals and populations in 19th and early 20th century Copenhagen.A total of 357 individuals (181 males, 176 females) excavated at the Assistens cemetery in Copenhagen is analyzed. Two stature regression formulae (Trotter, 1970; Boldsen, 1990) are applied using femur measurements and evaluated compared to conscript heights. The results indicate that mean male stature using Boldsen follows a similar trend as the Danish conscript heights and that Trotter overestimate stature by ca. 6cm over Boldsen. At an inter population level statistically significant differences in male stature are observed between first and second half of the 19th century towards a slight stature decrease and larger variation while there are no significant changes observed in female stature. There are insignificant differences in stature between middle and high class individuals, but male stature differs statistically between cemeteries (p=0.000) representing middle/high class, paupers and navy employees, respectively. Female stature had no significant wealth gradient (p=0.516). This study provides new evidence of stature among males and females during the 19th century and suggests that males may have been more sensitive to changes in environmental living and nutrition than females.

Stature estimation in ancient Egyptians: A new technique based on anatomical reconstruction of stature

Trotter and Gleser's (Trotter and Gleser: Am J Phys Anthropol 10 (1952) 469-514; Trotter and Gleser: Am J Phys Anthropol 16 (1958) 79-123) long bone formulae for US Blacks or derivations thereof (Robins and Shute: Hum Evol 1 (1986) 313-324) have been previously used to estimate the stature of ancient Egyptians. However, limb length to stature proportions differ between human populations; consequently, the most accurate mathematical stature estimates will be obtained when the population being examined is as similar as possible in proportions to the population used to create the equations. The purpose of this study was to create new stature regression formulae based on direct reconstructions of stature in ancient Egyptians and assess their accuracy in comparison to other stature estimation methods. We also compare Egyptian body proportions to those of modern American Blacks and Whites. Living stature estimates were derived using a revised Fully anatomical method (Raxter et al.: Am J Phys Anthropol 130 (2006) 374-384). Long bone stature regression equations were then derived for each sex. Our results confirm that, although ancient Egyptians are closer in body proportion to modern American Blacks than they are to American Whites, proportions in Blacks and Egyptians are not identical. The newly generated Egyptian-based stature regression formulae have standard errors of estimate of 1.9-4.2 cm. All mean directional differences are less than 0.4% compared to anatomically estimated stature, while results using previous formulae are more variable, with mean directional biases varying between 0.2% and 1.1%, tibial and radial estimates being the most biased. There is no evidence for significant variation in proportions among temporal or social groupings; thus, the new formulae may be broadly applicable to ancient Egyptian remains.

Statures of 19th century Chinese males in America

Objective: This study considers statures of 19th century male Chinese immigrant to the American West and assesses how their personal characteristics were related with stature variation.Subjects: The subjects were 1423 male Chinese prisoners received between 1850 and 1920 in the Arizona, California, Colorado, Idaho, New Mexico, Oregon, Utah and Washington state prisons.Method: The study compares 19th century Chinese inmate statures with other studies and employs stature regression models on time, socio-economic status and residence within the USA to account for biological variation.Results: Between 1830 and 1870, Chinese youth male stature declined by over 2 cm. Between 1820 and 1860, Chinese adult male stature also declined by over 2 cm. Chinese stature did not vary with socio-economic status or residence.Conclusions: Nineteenth century Chinese emigrant statures were influenced more by political and economic events than socio-economic status, and male emigrants' biological conditions may have deteriorated throughout the 19th century.

Estimation of body size and physique from hominin skeletal remains

Three methods of measuring stature from skeletal remains are reviewed: the reconstructed skeletal length, the correspondence of long bone length to stature and the regression of stature on long bone length. Each involves problems and difficulties. For the anthropologist, there is the additional problem of applying findings from extant taxa to extinct taxa with potentially different morphologies and limb proportions. Of the various studies involving regression of the stature the findings of Trotter and Gleser are judged the most robust and useful notwithstanding problems and limitations. The lumbar vertebrae are potentially important as stature predictors. Estimation of body mass from the skeleton is also beset with problems. Eight methods are reviewed: Hartwig-Scherer's taxon independent solution, four methods involving measurements from the weight-bearing appendicular skeleton, Ruff's method using the length of the reconstructed skeleton and an estimate of body breadth, estimates from the total skeletal mass and estimates from the body mass index when the stature is known approximately. Lumbar vertebrae provide reasonable estimates of both body mass and stature and thus by derivation the body mass index. At present both forensic scientists and anthropologists lack adequate data and methods to estimate body size and shape from hominin skeletons. A further large and well-designed study using magnetic resonance imaging is required.

Stature estimation from long bone lengths in Bulgarians

The purpose of the present study is to develop a new regression procedure for predicting the stature from the length of the limb long bones taking into account sex- and age-related changes. The statures and lengths of humerus (H), tibia (T) and fibula (Fi) were measured in 416 forensic cases (286 male and 130 female adult Bulgarians). The measurements of the bones and the stature were made on cadavers before autopsy. Stature regression analysis is performed for each of the three bones, as well as for a combination of humerus and tibia. There is a possibility of applying five different procedures with regard of the effect of aging on stature decrease. Resulting models are tested for outliers and heteroskedasticity. Regression parameters, their standard deviations, standard error of the regression. Anova test for model adequacy and the covariance matrix of regression parameters are calculated. The confidence intervals of the error term are determined. Nomograms for a direct application of the results are constructed where it is convenient. The method provides better and more reliable results of stature estimation for the Bulgarian population than other formulae.

Stature estimation and calibration: Bayesian and maximum likelihood perspectives in physical anthropology.

Many applied problems in physical anthropology involve estimation of an unobservable quantity (such as age at death or stature) from quantities that are observable. Two of the more disparate subdisciplines of our discipline, paleoanthropology and forensic anthropology, routinely make use of various estimation methods on a case-by-case basis. We discuss the rationales for making estimations on isolated cases, taking stature estimation from femoral and humerus lengths as an example. We show that the entirety of our discussion can be placed within the context of calibration problems, where a large calibration sample is used to estimate an unobservable quantity for a single skeleton. Taking a calibration approach to the problem highlights the essentially Bayesian versus maximum likelihood nature of the question of stature estimation. On the basis of both theoretical arguments and practical examples, we show that inverse calibration (regression of stature on bone length) is generally preferred when the stature distribution for a reference sample forms a reasonable prior, while classical calibration (regression of bone length on stature followed by solving for stature) is preferred when there is reason to suspect that the estimated stature will be an extrapolation beyond the useful limits of the reference sample statures. The choice between these two approaches amounts to the decision to use either a Bayesian or a maximum likelihood method.

Stature estimation and calibration: Bayesian and maximum likelihood perspectives in physical anthropology

Many applied problems in physical anthropology involve estimation of an unobservable quantity (such as age at death or stature) from quantities that are observable. Two of the more disparate subdisciplines of our discipline, paleoanthropology and forensic anthropology, routinely make use of various estimation methods on a case-by-case basis. We discuss the rationales for making estimations on isolated cases, taking stature estimation from femoral and humerus lengths as an example. We show that the entirety of our discussion can be placed within the context of calibration problems, where a large calibration sample is used to estimate an unobservable quantity for a single skeleton. Taking a calibration approach to the problem highlights the essentially Bayesian versus maximum likelihood nature of the question of stature estimation. On the basis of both theoretical arguments and practical examples, we show that inverse calibration (regression of stature on bone length) is generally preferred when the stature distribution for a reference sample forms a reasonable prior, while classical calibration (regression of bone length on stature followed by solving for stature) is preferred when there is reason to suspect that the estimated stature will be an extrapolation beyond the useful limits of the reference sample statures. The choice between these two approaches amounts to the decision to use either a Bayesian or a maximum likelihood method.

Should We Estimate Biological or Forensic Stature?

Abstract Trotter and Gleser's stature regression equations were derived from partly incorrect measurements of long bones and antemortem measured statures (MSTATs). Forensic anthropologists have applied these equations to correctly measured bones and compared resulting estimates to a forensic stature (FSTAT), usually obtained from a driver's license. Forensic anthropologists have also used Trotter and Gleser's standard error as a stature prediction range, despite published warnings that it is not wide enough for this purpose. The combination of these factors has resulted in inaccurate and unrealistically precise estimates of stature from the long bones. Several factors decrease the accuracy of measured statures, and a reanalysis of Trotter's data reveals that estimating a biological stature is more imprecise than previously supposed. For FSTATs, these estimates are inaccurate as well. Using data from the Forensic Data Bank, new regression equations for predicting FSTAT were calculated, and in some cases are more precise than regressions based on Trotter's data using MSTATs. Confidence intervals for a single prediction, or prediction intervals, were calculated and are superior to standard errors for providing a range for stature estimations.

509 BLOOD LEAD LEVELS AND STATURE IN THE NHANES II SURVEY

The second National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES II) incorporated medical history, physical examination, anthropometric measurements, dietary recall and food frequency, laboratory tests and x rays. Blood leads (PbB) were 5-35 μg/dl. In multiple weighted linear regressions of adjusted data from 2695 children 6 mos - 7 yrs, 91%. of the variance in height, 72%. of the variance in weight and 58%. of the variance in chest circumference were explained by five variables: age or (age)2, race, sex, PbB, total calories or protein and hematocrit or transferrin saturation. The coefficients remained stable after correction for collinearity. A difference in PbB of 10 μg/dl predicted a 1.2 cm difference in height. Variables that did not significantly improve the models predicting growth included family income, degree of urbanization, serum albumin, copper, iron and zinc, dietary carbohydrate, fat, calcium, potassium, phosphorus, Vitamin C, Vitamin A, niacin, riboflavin and thiamine. The highly significant, independent correlation of PbB with growth does not contradict the established association of childhood deprivation with increased lead exposure and with nutritional deficiencies known to enhance lead absorption. Correlation does not imply causality, but the significant regression of stature on PbB merits investigation of these observations in other surveys and consideration of the multiple biologic mechanisms by which low level PbB could modify growth.

Adult stature and age at menarche in Zapotec-speaking communities in the Valley of Oaxaca, Mexico, in a secular perspective.

Adult stature and the age at menarche among individuals from Zapotec-speaking communities in the Valley of Oaxaca in southern Mexico are considered in a secular perspective. Four sets of observations are utilized: 1) adult stature in males and females from five rural communities; 2) age at menarche in adult women and school girls from a single rural community; 3) earlier studies of adult stature in the Valley of Oaxaca; and 4) estimated stature from long bones excavated in various archaeological sites in the Valley of Oaxaca. There were no significant differences among the five communities for stature; hence, the data were pooled for analysis and comparison. Results of linear regression of stature and stature adjusted for the estimated effects of aging after 30 years of age on year of birth indicate negligible secular changes in either sex. Comparisons with statures from earlier surveys, the earliest dates to 1899, also indicate negligible changes. When adult women are grouped according to age, there are no differences in mean ages at menarche between the older and younger women. Mean age at menarche for the total adult sample is 14.53 +/- 0.08 years, which compares favorably with the probit estimate for school girls, 14.70 +/- 0.32 years. These results thus suggest virtually no secular change in adult size and maturity of the Zapotec-speaking population in the Valley of Oaxaca over the past 80 years. Differences in stature between contemporary populations and estimated statures from long bones from several archaeological sites in Oaxaca are small, and thus suggests little secular change over the past one to two-thousand years.

The effects of aging and secular trend on adult stature in rural western Ireland.

Cross-sectional data, consisting of anthropometric measurements for 347 adults males and 261 adult females in western Ireland measured during the 1930s, were used to determine the effects of aging and secular change upon stature. Estimates of statural loss due to aging were obtained using partial regression of stature on age while controlling for subischial length, and regression of the difference between observed stature and maximum predicted stature on age. Males show the effects of aging to a greater extent than do females. After correction for the effects of aging, the adjusted values of stature were progressed on age to estimate secular trend of stature. For males, there is a general increase of stature with time, excepting those born around 1878, while females generally show random variation with time. Both male and female adjusted stature decrease sharply around 1878, for which alternative historical explanations are proposed, relating to differential migration and survival.

Aging and secular change in adult stature in rural Colombia.

Age-associated changes in adult stature of a cross-sectional sample of 634 adults from rural Colombia were estimated by multiple regression of stature and age controlling for subischial length, and from equations predicting maximum attained stature from subischial length. From these analyses the estimated rate of loss in stature due to aging per se for men was 0.12 cm/yr, while for women it was 0.03 cm/yr. When corrected for aging, several secular trends in adult stature were evident, although none were statistically significant.