Regression-based Norms Research Articles

Interpreting the direct- and derived-Trail Making Test scores in Argentinian children: regression-based norms, convergent validity, test-retest reliability, and practice effects

Objective: We carried out two research studies (using a cross-sectional and a longitudinal design) to establish regression-based normative data, and to examine the convergent validity, the test-retest reliability, and the changes in performance with practice (1-month and 1-year interval) of the direct- and derived- (B-A, B + A, and B/A ratio) Trail Making Test (TMT) scores in Spanish-speaking children. Method: In S1 (n = 413 6- to 15-year-old children and adolescents), regression-based norming procedure and partial correlations were employed. In S2 (n = 110 6- to 12-year-old children), intraclass correlation coefficient (ICC2,1), Pearson’s r-product-moment correlations, and paired t-tests were used. Results: S1 demonstrated that age was associated with better performance on both TMT-A and TMT-B. This improvement was more strongly related to direct scores than derived measures B-A and B/A. Additionally, TMT-B was found to be more related to other executive functions (EF) compared to the performance of TMT-A. Among the derived scores, only the B-A was related primarily to cognitive flexibility, while the B + A index was associated with most EF, suggesting a general measure of cognitive functioning. In S2, fair to good test-retest reliability coefficients were found at Time 2 for TMT-A and TMT-B, as well as the B + A index, both in 6 to 8-year-olds (ICCs .61 to .74) and 9 to 12-year-olds (ICCs .53 to .65). There was a significant increase in performance on TMT-A and TMT-B from the first assessment (Time 1) to the follow-up testing at Time 2 in older children. However, this significant improvement was not observed for TMT-B in the younger group. Test scores on the TMT direct measures improved significantly across 1-year. The B-A and B/A ratio scores did not change across examinations. Conclusions: These findings have important implications for assessing EF and developing interventions that target cognitive flexibility in pediatric populations.

The Usefulness of the Regression-Based Normed SKT Short Cognitive Performance Test in Detecting Cognitive Impairment in a Community Sample.

Background: The SKT is a short cognitive performance test designed to assess impairments in memory and cognitive abilities such as attention and speed of information processing. In 2019, new regression-based norms for the English version of the SKT were calculated. This study has two aims: to establish valid cut-offs for distinguishing between no cognitive impairment, mild cognitive impairment (MCI), and dementia (1) and to cross-validate the new norms for detecting MCI and dementia in a community sample of older adults with clinical diagnoses (2). Methods: The validation sample included 143 older adults (mean age = 87.7, SD = 3.55) from the Sydney Memory and Aging Study (MAS Study). Participants were classified as having normal cognition, MCI, or dementia solely based on a consensus diagnosis; in addition, three tests (SKT, Mini-Mental State Examination (MMSE), and Addenbrooke's Cognitive Examination III (ACE-III)) to measure cognitive impairment were applied. Sensitivity and specificity for all three tests, as well as bivariate correlations, were calculated. Results: The sensitivity of the SKT for the differentiation of cognitive impairment (MCI or dementia) from normal cognition was 80.6%. The convergence between the SKT and the consensus diagnoses was 70.3% for all three diagnostic groups. All correlations between the three tests and the consensus diagnosis were significant (p < 0.01). Conclusions: In sum, it can be stated that the SKT is a valid tool for detecting early stages of cognitive impairment, performing very well in discriminating between no cognitive impairment and cognitive impairment (MCI or dementia).

Young children’s performance on a design fluency task: longitudinal data on total number of designs, clustering and switching, and regression-based norms

ABSTRACT Introduction Design fluency (DF) tasks are commonly used to assess executive functions such as attentional control, cognitive flexibility, self-monitoring and strategy use. Next to the total number of correct designs, the standard outcome of a DF task, clustering and switching can help disentangle the processes underlying DF performance. We present the first longitudinal study of 4–8-year-old children’s developmental DF trajectories. Method At initial enrollment, children (n = 228) were aged between 4.05 and 6.88 years (M = 5.18, SD = 0.59) and attended Dutch primary schools. The DF task was administered at three time points, each time point separated by approximately 1 year. Data were analyzed using mixed regression for total number of correct designs and switching, and mixed logistic regression analysis for clustering. Results The total number of correct designs increased linearly across the three time points. Across all time points, children made very few clusters, and most clusters consisted of only 3 designs. Clustering only increased at the third assessment compared to the two previous assessments. Switching increased up to the second assessment, but not after that. The number of switches was highly correlated with the total number of correct designs at all time points (r = 0.78 to r = 0.85). These developmental trajectories were similar for all children regardless of their baseline age. Normative data are given for the total number of correct designs and switching. Conclusions Children as of age 4 onwards can perform a DF task. For children as young as 4–8 years old, computing clustering, and switching measures is of limited value to study cognitive processes underlying DF performance, next to the total number of correct designs. There were no sex differences on any of the DF outcomes. Level of parental education (LPE) was positively associated with the total number of correct designs and switching.

Facilitating clinical use of the Amsterdam Instrumental Activities of Daily Living Questionnaire: Normative data and a diagnostic cutoff value.

The Amsterdam Instrumental Activities of Daily Living Questionnaire (A-IADL-Q) is well validated and commonly used to assess difficulties in everyday functioning regarding dementia. To facilitate interpretation and clinical implementation across different European countries, we aim to provide normative data and a diagnostic cutoff for dementia. Cross-sectional data from Dutch Brain Research Registry (N = 1,064; mean (M) age = 62 ± 11 year; 69.5% female), European Medial Information Framework-Alzheimer's Disease 90 + (N = 63; Mage = 92 ± 2 year; 52.4% female), and European Prevention of Alzheimer's Dementia Longitudinal Cohort Study (N = 247; Mage = 63 ± 7 year; 72.1% female) were used. The generalized additive models for location, scale, and shape framework were used to obtain normative values (Z-scores). The beta distribution was applied, and combinations of age, sex, and educational attainment were modeled. The optimal cutoff for dementia was calculated using area under receiver operating curves (AUC-ROC) and Youden Index, using data from Amsterdam Dementia Cohort (N = 2,511, Mage = 64 ± 8 year, 44.4% female). The best normative model accounted for a cubic-like decrease of IADL performance with age that was more pronounced in low compared to medium/high educational attainment. The cutoff for dementia was 1.85 standard deviation below the population mean (AUC = 0.97; 95% CI [0.97-0.98]). We provide regression-based norms for A-IADL-Q and a diagnostic cutoff for dementia, which help improve clinical assessment of IADL performance across European countries.

The Montreal Cognitive Assessment: Norms and Reliable Change Indices for Standard and MoCA-22 Administrations.

The Montreal Cognitive Assessment (MoCA) is among the most frequently administered cognitive screening tests, yet demographically diverse normative data are needed for repeated administrations. Data were obtained from 18,410 participants using the National Alzheimer's Coordinating Center Uniform Data Set. We developed regression-based norms using Tobit regression to account for ceiling effects, explored test-retest reliability of total scores and by domain stratified by age and diagnosis with Cronbach's alpha, and reported the cumulative change frequencies for individuals with serial MoCA administrations to gage expected change. Strong ceiling effects and negative skew were observed at the total score, domain, and item levels for the cognitively normal group, and performances became more normally distributed as the degree of cognitive impairment increased. In regression models, years of education was associated with higher MoCA scores, whereas older age, male sex, Black and American Indian or Alaska Native race, and Hispanic ethnicity were associated with lower predicted scores. Temporal stability was adequate and good at the total score level for the cognitively normal and cognitive disorders groups, respectively, but fell short of reliability standards at the domain level. MoCA total scores are adequately reproducible among those with cognitive diagnoses, but domain scores are unstable. Robust regression-based norms should be used to adjust for demographic performance differences, and the limited reliability, along with the ceiling effects and negative skew, should be considered when interpreting MoCA scores.

A quantitative review of competing learning slope metrics: effects of age, sex, and clinical diagnosis

ABSTRACT Introduction In learning and memory tests that involve multiple presentations of the same material, learning slope refers to the degree to which examinees improve performances over successive learning trials. We aimed to quantitatively review the traditional raw learning slope (RLS), and the newly created learning ratio (LR) to understand the effects of demographic variables and clinical diagnoses on learning slope (e.g., limited improvement over multiple trials), and to develop demographically sensitive norms. Method A systematic literature search was conducted to evaluate the potential for these aims to be examined across the most popular contemporary multi-trial learning tests. Two databases were searched. Following this, hierarchical linear modeling was used to examine how demographic variables predict learning slope indices. These results were in turn used to contrast the performance of clinical groups with the predicted performance of demographically similar healthy controls. Finally, preliminary normative estimates for learning slope indices were presented. Results A total of 82 studies met criteria for inclusion in this study. However, the Rey Auditory Verbal Learning Test (RAVLT) was the only test to have sufficient trial-level learning and demographic data. Fifty-eight samples from 19 studies were quantitatively examined. Hierarchical linear models provided evidence of sex differences and a curvilinear decline in learning slope with age, with strongest and most consistent effects for LR relative to RLS. Regression-based norms for demographically corrected RLS and LR scores for the RAVLT are presented. The effect of clinical diagnoses was consistently stronger for LR, and Alzheimer’s disease had the strongest effect, followed by invalid performances, severe traumatic brain injury, and seizures/epilepsy. Conclusion Overall, LR enjoys both conceptual and demonstrated psychometric advantages over RLS. Replication of these findings can be completed by reanalyzing existing datasets. Further work may focus on the utility of using LR in diagnosis and prediction of clinical prognosis.

Mayo normative studies: regression-based normative data for ages 30-91 years with a focus on the Boston Naming Test, Trail Making Test and Category Fluency.

Normative neuropsychological data are essential for interpretation of test performance in the context of demographic factors. The Mayo Normative Studies (MNS) aim to provide updated normative data for neuropsychological measures administered in the Mayo Clinic Study of Aging (MCSA), a population-based study of aging that randomly samples residents of Olmsted County, Minnesota, from age- and sex-stratified groups. We examined demographic effects on neuropsychological measures and validated the regression-based norms in comparison to existing normative data developed in a similar sample. The MNS includes cognitively unimpaired adults ≥30 years of age (n = 4,428) participating in the MCSA. Multivariable linear regressions were used to determine demographic effects on test performance. Regression-based normative formulas were developed by first converting raw scores to normalized scaled scores and then regressing on age, age2, sex, and education. Total and sex-stratified base rates of low scores (T < 40) were examined in an older adult validation sample and compared with Mayo's Older Americans Normative Studies (MOANS) norms. Independent linear regressions revealed variable patterns of linear and/or quadratic effects of age (r2 = 6-27% variance explained), sex (0-13%), and education (2-10%) across measures. MNS norms improved base rates of low performance in the older adult validation sample overall and in sex-specific patterns relative to MOANS. Our results demonstrate the need for updated norms that consider complex demographic associations on test performance and that specifically exclude participants with mild cognitive impairment from the normative sample.

3 Quick-Reference Criteria for Identifying Clinically Significant Multivariate Change in Older Adult Cognition: A NACC Study

Objective:Accurately interpreting cognitive change is an essential aspect of clinical care for older adults. Several approaches to identifying 'true’ cognitive change in a single cognitive measure are available (e.g., reliable change methods, regression-based norms); however, neuropsychologists in clinical settings often rely on simple score differences rather than advanced statistics, especially since multiple scores compose a typical battery. This study sought to establish quick-reference normative criteria to help neuropsychologists identify how frequently significant change occurs across multiple measures in cognitively normal older adults.Participants and Methods:Data were obtained from the National Alzheimer’s Coordinating Center (NACC). Participants were 845 older adults who were classified as cognitively normal at baseline and at 24-month follow-up. In NACC, these clinical classifications are made separately from the assessment of cognitive performance, including cognitive change. The sample was 34.9% female, 83.5% White, 13.1% Black 2.3% Asian, and 1.1% other race with a mean age of 70.7 years (SD=10.2). Of the sample, 95.5% identified as non-Hispanic. Mean education was 16.1 years (SD=2.8). The cognitive battery entailed: Craft Story Immediate and Delayed Recall, Benson Copy and Delayed Recall, Number Span (Forward &amp; Backward), Category Fluency (Animals &amp; Vegetables), Trails A&amp;B, Multilingual Naming Test, and Verbal Fluency (F&amp;L). Change scores between baseline performance and follow-up were calculated for each measure. The natural distribution of change scores was examined for each measure and cut points representing the 5th and 10th percentile were applied to each distribution to classify participants who exhibited substantial declines in performance on each measure. We then examined the multivariate frequency of statistically rare change scores for each individual.Results:As expected in a normal sample, overall cognitive performance was generally stable between baseline and 24-month follow-up. Across cognitive measures, 81.9% of participants had at least one change score fall below the 10th percentile in the distribution of change scores, and 55.7% had at least one score below the 5th percentile, 49.3% of participants had two or more change scores that fell below the 10th percentile and 21.1% with two or more below the 5th percentile. There were 26.7% participants that had three or more change scores below the 10th percentile, and 6.4% of participants had three change scores below the 5th percentile.Conclusions:Among cognitively normal older adults assessed twice at a 24-month interval with a battery of 13 measures, it was not uncommon for an individual to have at least one score fall below the 10th percentile (82% of the sample) or even the 5th percentile (56%) in the natural distribution of change scores. There were 27% participants that had three or more declines in test performance below the 10th percentile; in comparison, only 6% of the sample had three or more change scores at the 5th percentile. This suggests that individuals who exhibit more multivariate changes in performance than these standards are likely experiencing an abnormal rate of cognitive decline. Our findings provide a preliminary quick-reference approach to identifying clinically significant cognitive change. Future studies will explore additional batteries and examine multivariate frequencies of change in clinical populations.

29 Quick-Reference Criteria for Identifying Clinically Significant Multivariate Change in Older Adult Cognition: An ADNI Study

Objective:Accurately interpreting change in cognitive functioning is an essential aspect of clinical care for older adults. Several approaches to identifying ‘true’ cognitive change in a single cognitive measure are available (e.g., reliable change methods, regression-based norms); however, neuropsychologists in clinical settings often rely on simple score differences rather than advanced analytical procedures especially since they examine multiple test performances. This study sought to establish quick-reference normative criteria to help neuropsychologists identify how frequently significant change occurs across multiple cognitive measures in cognitively normal older adults.Participants and Methods:Data were obtained from the Alzheimer’s Disease Neuroimaging Initiative (ADNI). Participants were 401 older adults who were classified as cognitively normal at baseline and at 24-month follow-up. In ADNI, these clinical classifications are made separately from the assessment of cognitive performance, including cognitive change. The sample was 50.1% female, 93.5% non-Hispanic White, 4.0% non-Hispanic Black, 1.5% Asian American, and 1.0% other race/ethnicity, with a mean age of 76.0 years (SD = 4.9). Mean education was 16.4 years (SD = 2.7). The cognitive battery included: Boston Naming Test, Category Fluency Test, Trails A &amp; B, Clock Drawing Test, and Auditory Verbal Learning Test, Trial 1-5 Total and Delayed Recall. Change scores between baseline performance and 24-month follow-up were calculated for each measure. The natural distribution of change scores was examined for each measure and cut points representing the 5th and 10th percentile were applied to each distribution to classify participants who exhibited substantial declines in performance on a given measure. We then examined the multivariate frequency of statistically rare change scores for each individual.Results:As expected in a normal sample, overall cognitive performance was generally stable between baseline and 24-month followup. Across cognitive measures, 43.6% of participants had at least one change score fall below the 10th percentile in the distribution of change scores, and 21.9% had at least one score below the 5th percentile. 13.0% of participants had two or more change scores that fell below the 10th percentile, in comparison to 4.5% with two or more below the 5th percentile. 3.2% of participants had three or more change scores below the 10th percentile, versus 0.5% of participants who had three change scores below the 5th percentile.Conclusions:Among cognitively normal older adults assessed twice at a 24-month interval with a battery of seven measures, it was not uncommon for an individual to have at least one score fall below the 10th percentile (43% of the sample) or even the 5th percentile (21%) in the natural distribution of change scores. However, only 3.2% of normals had more than two declines in test performance below the 10th percentile, and less than 1% of the sample at more than one change score at the 5th percentile. This suggests that individuals who exhibit more multivariate changes in performance than these standards are likely experiencing an abnormal rate of cognitive decline. Our findings provide a preliminary quick-reference approach to identifying clinically significant cognitive change. Future studies will explore additional batteries and examine multivariate frequencies of change in clinical populations.

29 Vascular Burden Mediates the Relationship Between ADHD and Cognition in Older Adults

Objective:Accumulating evidence from case-control and population studies suggests attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) confers a 2- to 5-fold risk of all-cause dementia later in life. Here, we investigate vascular burden as a potential mediator of this relationship, because vascular integrity is well known to be compromised in ADHD (due to chronic obesity, diabetes, and hypertension) and is also a robust risk factor for neurodegeneration (due to reduced cerebral blood flow). We use brain white matter hyperintensities (WMH) as a measure of vascular burden.Participants and Methods:Thirty-nine adults aged 48-81 years with clinical ADHD, and 37 matched controls, completed neuropsychological testing and 1.5 T structural neuroimaging. None had stroke. Cognitive tests were demographically-adjusted to Z scores using regression-based norms generated from the control group, and averaged across tests within domains of short- and long-term verbal memory (forward digit span, California Verbal Learning Test, Logical Memory), visual memory (Visual Recognition, Rey Complex Figure), processing speed (coding, trails A, Stroop word-reading and color-naming), language (Boston Naming Test, semantic fluency), visuoconstruction (clock drawing, Rey Complex Figure copy), and executive function (backward digit span, trails B, phonemic fluency, Stroop inhibition, Wisconsin Card Sorting Test). Total WMH volumes (i.e., combined periventricular and deep) within subcortical, temporal, frontal, parietal, and occipital regions were individually divided by regional volumes to produce a proportion of each region representing WMH, then log-transformed to correct for skew. Age-corrected linear regression quantified total effects of ADHD on cognition; when these were significant, mediation models quantified the direct effects of ADHD on WMH volumes and the direct effect of WMH volumes on cognition. Sobel’s test estimated indirect effects of ADHD on cognition via WMH.Results:Group had a significant total effect on Processing Speed (ß=-1.154, p&lt;.001) and on Executive Functioning (ß=-0.587, p=.004), where ADHD participants had lower composite scores (M=-1.10, SD=1.76 and M=-0.54, SD=1.14 respectively) than controls (M=0.02, SD=0.74; M=0.00, SD=0.49). Only frontal-lobe WMH had direct effects on Processing Speed (ß=-0.315, p=.012) and Executive Functioning (ß=-0.273, p&lt;.001). The direct effect of ADHD on frontal WMH was significant (ß=-0.734, p=.016), and Sobel’s tests supported an indirect effect of ADHD on Executive Functioning (z=2.079, p=.038) but not Processing Speed (z=1.785, p=.074) via WMH. Because the effect of ADHD on WMH was negative (i.e., fewer WMH in ADHD) despite worse cognition than controls, we tested the a posteriori hypothesis that WMH burden may be relatively more deleterious for ADHD than controls. We found considerably stronger negative correlations between total WMH volumes and Processing Speed (r=-.423, p=.009) and Executive Functioning (r=-.528, p&lt;.001) in the ADHD group than in controls (r=-.231, p=.175 and r=-.162, p=.346, respectively), even though total whole-brain proportion of WMH (M=0.15%, SD=0.27; Mann-Whitney l/=430.0, p=.002) and frontal-lobe proportion of WMH volumes (M=0.33%, SD=0.51; Mann-Whitney U=464.0, p=.007) were lower in ADHD than in controls (M=0.29%, SD=0.42 and M=0.66%, SD=0.88, respectively).Conclusions:WMH burden contributes significantly to the relationship between ADHD and cognition, but ADHD remains an independent contributor to worse processing speed and executive functioning in older adults. Vascular burden may have relatively more deleterious effects on cognition in ADHD, potentially due to decades of accumulated allostatic load, whereas healthy controls can accumulate greater amounts of WMH before cognition is impacted.

Plenary C: Developing Tools for Global Neuropsychological Assessment

Abstract &amp; Learning Objectives:During the 20th century, neuropsychology emerged as a research and clinical specialty, predominantly—though not exclusively—in Western Europe and North America. Formation of the International Neuropsychological Society has done much to foster globalization of the discipline, though we have yet to develop neuropsychological assessment instruments that are suitable for worldwide use. Test publishers have few financial incentives to undertake the development, standardization, and normative data collection required to create cognitive tests for worldwide use. And health-related funding organizations typically prioritize disease-focused etiologic, mechanistic, and treatment research in their resource allocation. Thus, developing such tools will likely require clinical data and other contributions from the entire international community of neuropsychologists. In this address, I will focus on two approaches to developing tests and norms that are suitable to global use, along with ongoing efforts and progress to date in each. I will also appeal to every member of the international community of neuropsychologists to help turn this vision into a reality now.Upon conclusion of this course, learners will be able to: 1.Describe two fundamental approaches to developing neuropsychological tests that are appropriate for international use.2.Explain at least one strength and limitation of each approach to global test and regression-based norms development.3.Assess how to personally engage in a project that aims to provide contributors with free access to a global neuropsychological test battery that is suitable for use worldwide in multiple languages.

Regression-based normative data for the D-KEFS Color-Word Interference Test in Norwegian adults ages 20–85

Objective: The Delis-Kaplan Executive Function System (D-KEFS) Color-Word-Interference Test (CWIT; AKA Stroop test) is a widely used measure of processing speed and executive function. While test materials and instructions have been translated to Norwegian, only American age-adjusted norms from D-KEFS are available in Norway. We here develop norms in a sample of 1011 Norwegians between 20 and 85 years. We provide indexes for stability over time and assess demographic adjustments applying the D-KEFS norms. Method: Participants were healthy Norwegian adults from Center for Lifespan Changes in Brain and Cognition (LCBC) (n = 899), the Dementia Disease Initiation (n = 77), and Oslo MCI (n = 35). Using regression-based norming, we estimated linear and non-linear effects of age, education, and sex on the CWIT 1-4 subtests. Stability over time was assessed with intraclass correlation coefficients (ICC). The normative adjustment of the D-KEFS norms was assessed with linear regression models. Results: Increasing age was associated with slower completion on all CWIT subtests in a non-linear fashion (accelerated lowering of performance with older age). Women performed better on CWIT-1&3. Higher education predicted faster completion time on CWIT-3&4. The original age-adjusted norms from D-KEFS did not adjust for sex or education. Furthermore, we observed significant, albeit small effects of age on all CWIT subtests. ICC analyses indicated moderate to good stability over time. Conclusion: We present demographically adjusted regression-based norms and stability indexes for the D-KEFS CWIT subtests. US D-KEFS norms may be inaccurate for Norwegians with high or low educational attainment, especially women.

Vascular Disease Is Associated With Differences in Brain Structure and Lower Cognitive Functioning in Inflammatory Bowel Disease: A Cross-Sectional Study.

Vascular disease and cognitive impairment have been increasingly documented in inflammatory bowel disease (IBD), and both have been individually correlated with changes in brain structure. This study aimed to determine if both macro- and microstructural brain changes are prevalent in IBD and whether alterations in brain structure mediate the relationship between vascular disease and cognitive functioning. Eighty-four IBD participants underwent multimodal magnetic resonance imaging. Volumetric and mean diffusivity measures of the thalamus, hippocampus, normal-appearing white matter, and white matter lesions were converted to age- and sex-adjusted z scores. Vascular comorbidity was assessed using a modified Framingham Risk Score and cognition was assessed using a battery of neuropsychological tests. Test scores were standardized using local regression-based norms. We generated summary statistics for the magnetic resonance imaging metrics and cognitive tests, and these were examined using canonical correlation analysis and linear regression modeling. Greater vascular comorbidity was negatively correlated with thalamic, normal-appearing white matter, and white matter lesion volumes. Higher Framingham Risk Score were also correlated with lower processing speed, learning and memory, and verbal fluency. Increased vascular comorbidity was predictive of poorer cognitive functioning, and this effect was almost entirely mediated (94.76%) by differences in brain structure. Vascular comorbidity is associated with deleterious effects on brain structure and lower cognitive functioning in IBD. These findings suggest that proper identification and treatment of vascular disease is essential to the overall management of IBD, and that certain brain areas may serve as critical targets for predicting the response to therapeutic interventions.

The Single-Matrix Digit Cancellation Test, a Screener for Selective Attention Deficits: Standardization in an Italian Population Sample and Clinical Usability in Acute Stroke Patients

Introduction: This study aimed at validating and providing Italian norms for the Single-Matrix Digit Cancellation Test (SMDCT), a cancellation task to screen for selective attention deficits, as well as providing clinical usability evidence for it in acute stroke patients. Methods: The SMDCT stimulus is a specular, 4-quadrant, horizontally oriented matrix, across which target distribution is homogeneous. Both accuracy (-A) and time (-T) outcomes were computed. N = 263 healthy participants (HPs) and N = 76 acute stroke patients were recruited. N = 108 HPs also underwent the Mini-Mental State Examination, Frontal Assessment Battery (FAB), and Trail-Making Test (TMT), while patients were further assessed by the Mental Performance in Acute Stroke (MEPS). Regression-based norms were derived (equivalent scores). Construct and factorial validity, as well as case-control discrimination, were tested. Results: The matrix was underpinned by a two-component structure reflecting left and right hits. The SMDCT-T and -A were associated with TMT and FAB scores, respectively. Education predicted the SMDCT-A/-T, whereas age predicted the SMDCT-T only. In patients, the SMDCT converged with the MEPS, also accurately discriminating them from HPs. An index of right-left difference differentiated right- from left-damaged patients. Conclusions: The SMDCT is a valid and normed screener for selective attention deficits, encompassing measures of both accuracy and time, whose adoption is encouraged in acute stroke patients. Relatedly, the horizontal disposition of its matrix does allow for the qualitative report of either leftward of rightward biases due to underlying visual or attentional-representational deficits in this population.

Cleveland Clinic Cognitive Battery (C3B): Normative, Reliability, and Validation Studies of a Self-Administered Computerized Tool for Screening Cognitive Dysfunction in Primary Care.

The self-administered iPad-based Cleveland Clinic Cognitive Battery (C3B) was designed specifically for the efficient screening of cognitive functioning of older adults in a primary care setting. 1) Generate regression-based norms from healthy participants to enable demographic corrections to facilitate clinical interpretation; 2) estimate test-retest reliability and practice effects; 3) examine ability to discriminate mild cognitive impairment (MCI) from healthy aging; 4) d etermine validity of screening in a distracting clinical environment; and 5) determine completion rates and patient satisfaction in a primary care setting. Study 1 (S1) recruited a stratified sample of 428 healthy adults, ages 18-89, to generate regression-based equations. S2 assessed 2-week test-retest reliability and practice effects in 30 healthy elders. S3 recruited 30 MCI patients and 30 demographically-matched healthy controls. In S4, 30 healthy elders self-administered the C3B in a distracting environment and in a quiet private room in counterbalanced order. In a demonstration project, 470 consecutive primary care patients were administered the C3B as part of routine clinical care (S5). C3B performance was primarily influenced by age, education, and race (S1), had acceptably high test-retest reliability and minimal practice effects (S2), discriminated MCI from healthy controls (S3), was not negatively impacted by a distracting clinical environment (S4), had high completion rates (>92%) and positive ratings from primary care patients (S5). The C3B is a computerized cognitive screening tool that is reliable, validated, self-administered, and is conducive to integration into a busy primary care clinical workflow for detecting MCI, early Alzheimer's disease, and other related dementias.

Broken Ring enVision Search (BReViS): A New Clinical Test of Attention to Assess the Effect of Layout and Crowding on Visual Search.

The assessment of attention in neuropsychological patients could be performed with visual search tests. The Broken Rings enVision Search test (BReViS) here proposed represents a novel open access paper-and-pencil tool in which layout and crowding are varied among four cards. These manipulations allow the assessment of different components of attention: a selective component, the visuo-spatial orientation of attention, and the focal attention, involved in a crowding phenomenon. Our purpose was to determine the characteristics of the BReViS test, provide specific normative data, and assess these components across the lifespan. The test was administered to a sample of 550 participants aged between 20 and 79 years old and to a series of patients. Three indexes targeting different components of visuo-spatial attention (selective attention, strategic orientation of visual attention, focal attention) were obtained by combining execution times and accuracy together with the total errors. The results showed that age, education and gender influenced, in different combinations, the four indexes, for which specific norms were developed. Regression-based norms were provided in percentiles and equivalent scores. All patients showed pathological scores and specific patterns of attentional deficits. The BreViS test proved to be a free and easy valuable tool which can be used in the clinical environment to assess attentional deficits in neuropsychological patients.

Vascular comorbidity is associated with decreased cognitive functioning in inflammatory bowel disease

Reports of cognitive impairment in inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) have been mixed. IBD and cardiovascular disease are often co-morbid, yet it remains unknown whether vascular comorbidity confers a risk for decreased cognitive functioning, as observed in other populations. Participants with IBD were recruited from a longitudinal study of immune-mediated disease. Participants were administered a standardized neuropsychological test protocol, evaluating information processing speed, verbal learning and memory, visual learning and memory, and verbal fluency/executive function. Cognitive test scores were standardized using local regression-based norms, adjusting for age, sex, and education. Vascular risk was calculated using a modified Framingham Risk Score (FRS). We tested the association between FRS and cognitive test scores using a quantile regression model, adjusting for IBD type. Of 84 IBD participants, 54 had ulcerative colitis and 30 had Crohn’s disease; mean (SD) age was 53.36 (13.95) years, and a high proportion were females (n = 58). As the risk score (FRS) increased, participants demonstrated lower performance in information processing speed (β = − 0.12; 95% CI − 0.24, − 0.006) and verbal learning (β = − 0.14; 95% CI − 0.28, − 0.01) at the 50th percentile. After adjusting for IBD type and disease activity, higher FRS remained associated with lower information processing speed (β = − 0.14; 95% CI − 0.27, − 0.065). Vascular comorbidity is associated with lower cognitive functioning in persons with IBD, particularly in the area of information processing speed. These findings suggest that prevention, identification, and treatment of vascular comorbidity in IBD may play a critical role for improving functional outcomes in IBD.

A South African adaptation of the international affective picture system: The influence of socioeconomic status and education level on picture ratings.

The International Affective Picture System (IAPS) is used globally in emotion research. However, normative studies in diverse contexts do not consider the influence of education and socioeconomic status (SES) on picture ratings. We created the South African Affective Picture System (SA-APS) for use in low- and middle-income countries (LMICs) by replacing some original IAPS images with pictures featuring more diverse groups of people and culturally appropriate stimuli. Healthy South African adults from higher and lower education/SES backgrounds (n = 80; n = 70 respectively) provided valence and arousal ratings for 340 images from the original IAPS and 340 images from the new SA-APS. Overall, their ratings of SA-APS images were better aligned with the US normative standards than their ratings of IAPS images, particularly with regard to valence. Those with higher SES/education rated IAPS images differently from those with lower SES/education (e.g., valence ratings of the latter were similar to US normative standards, whereas those of the former were more negative). Regression modelling indicated that sex and SES significantly predicted the current sample's IAPS and SA-APS ratings (e.g., women and higher-SES participants rated high-arousal images as being significantly more arousing than men and lower-SES participants); hence, we created regression-based norms for both picture sets. These norms are especially useful in emotion research, because few studies emerge from LMICs, and few instruments account for substantial sociodemographic diversity. Extending the reach of tools such as the IAPS to LMICs can help ensure a more globally representative body of research in this field.

Characterizing mild cognitive impairment to predict incident dementia in adults with bipolar disorder: What should the benchmark be?

Objective: Although mild cognitive impairment (MCI) is generally considered a risk state for dementia, its prevalence and association with dementia are impacted by the number of tests and cut-points used to assess cognition and define “impairment,” and sources of norms. Here, we investigate how these methodological variations impact estimates of incident dementia in adults with bipolar disorder (BD), a vulnerable population with pre-existing cognitive deficits and increased dementia risk. Method: Neuropsychological data from 148 adults with BD and 13,610 healthy controls (HC) were drawn from the National Alzheimer’s Coordinating Center. BD participants’ scores were standardized against published norms and again using regression-based norms generated from HC within the same catchment area as individual BD patients (“site-specific norms”), varying the number of within-domain tests (one vs. two) and the cut-points (−1 vs. −1.5 SD) used to operationalize MCI. Results: Site-specific norms were more sensitive to incident dementia (88.6%–94.3%) than published norms (74.3%–88.6%), but only when using a “single test” definition of impairment. Specificity (22.1%–74.3%), accuracy (37.8%–68.9%), and positive predictive values (26.1%–38.3%) were overall poor. Applying a “single test” definition of impairment resulted in better negative predictive values using site-specific (92.3%–93.3%) than published norms (83.6%–86.2%), and a substantial increase in relative risk of incident dementia relative to published norms. Conclusions: Neuropsychologists should define “impairment” as scores below −1.0 or −1.5 SD on at least two within-domain measures when using published norms to interpret cognitive performance in adults with BD.

Regression‐based normative data for the Rey Auditory Verbal Learning Test in Norwegian and Swedish adults aged 49–79 and comparison with published norms

Objective : The Rey Auditory Verbal Learning Test (RAVLT) is a widely used measure of episodic verbal memory. To our knowledge, culturally adapted and demographically adjusted norms for the RAVLT are currently not available for Norwegian and Swedish adults, and imported North American norms are often used. We here develop regression-based norms for Norwegian and Swedish adults and compare our norms to North American norms in an independent sample of cognitively healthy adults. Method : Participants were 244 healthy adults from Norway and Sweden between the aged 49 and 79 years, with between 6 and 24 years of education. Using a multiple multivariate regression-based norming procedure, we estimated effects of age, sex, and years of education on basic and derived RAVLT test scores. The newly developed norms were assessed in an independent comparison group of cognitively healthy adults (n = 145) and compared to recently published North American regression-based norms. Results : Lower age, female sex and more years of education predicted higher performance on the RAVLT. The new norms adequately adjusted for age, education, and sex in the independent comparison group. The American norms corrected for demographics on all RAVLT trials except trials 4, 7, list B, and trials 1–5 total. Test-retest (M = 2.55 years) reliability varied from poor to good. Conclusion : We propose regression-based norms for the RAVLT adjusting for pertinent demographics. The norms may be used for assessment of Norwegian and Swedish adults between the aged of 49 and 79 years, with between 6 and 24 years of education.