Regions Of Human Genome Research Articles

Global mapping of DNA conformational flexibility on Saccharomyces cerevisiae.

In this study we provide the first comprehensive map of DNA conformational flexibility in Saccharomyces cerevisiae complete genome. Flexibility plays a key role in DNA supercoiling and DNA/protein binding, regulating DNA transcription, replication or repair. Specific interest in flexibility analysis concerns its relationship with human genome instability. Enrichment in flexible sequences has been detected in unstable regions of human genome defined fragile sites, where genes map and carry frequent deletions and rearrangements in cancer. Flexible sequences have been suggested to be the determinants of fragile gene proneness to breakage; however, their actual role and properties remain elusive. Our in silico analysis carried out genome-wide via the StabFlex algorithm, shows the conserved presence of highly flexible regions in budding yeast genome as well as in genomes of other Saccharomyces sensu stricto species. Flexibile peaks in S. cerevisiae identify 175 ORFs mapping on their 3’UTR, a region affecting mRNA translation, localization and stability. (TA)n repeats of different extension shape the central structure of peaks and co-localize with polyadenylation efficiency element (EE) signals. ORFs with flexible peaks share common features. Transcripts are characterized by decreased half-life: this is considered peculiar of genes involved in regulatory systems with high turnover; consistently, their function affects biological processes such as cell cycle regulation or stress response. Our findings support the functional importance of flexibility peaks, suggesting that the flexible sequence may be derived by an expansion of canonical TAYRTA polyadenylation efficiency element. The flexible (TA)n repeat amplification could be the outcome of an evolutionary neofunctionalization leading to a differential 3’-end processing and expression regulation in genes with peculiar function. Our study provides a new support to the functional role of flexibility in genomes and a strategy for its characterization inside human fragile sites.

DNA methylation at hepatitis B viral integrants is associated with methylation at flanking human genomic sequences.

Integration of DNA viruses into the human genome plays an important role in various types of tumors, including hepatitis B virus (HBV)–related hepatocellular carcinoma. However, the molecular details and clinical impact of HBV integration on either human or HBV epigenomes are unknown. Here, we show that methylation of the integrated HBV DNA is related to the methylation status of the flanking human genome. We developed a next-generation sequencing-based method for structural methylation analysis of integrated viral genomes (denoted G-NaVI). This method is a novel approach that enables enrichment of viral fragments for sequencing using unique baits based on the sequence of the HBV genome. We detected integrated HBV sequences in the genome of the PLC/PRF/5 cell line and found variable levels of methylation within the integrated HBV genomes. Allele-specific methylation analysis revealed that the HBV genome often became significantly methylated when integrated into highly methylated host sites. After integration into unmethylated human genome regions such as promoters, however, the HBV DNA remains unmethylated and may eventually play an important role in tumorigenesis. The observed dynamic changes in DNA methylation of the host and viral genomes may functionally affect the biological behavior of HBV. These findings may impact public health given that millions of people worldwide are carriers of HBV. We also believe our assay will be a powerful tool to increase our understanding of the various types of DNA virus-associated tumorigenesis.

Control of Host Gene Expression by a Herpesvirus Transcription Factor

Herpes simplex virus and other alpha-herpesviruses encode a transcription factor, VP16, able to activate expression of genes containing its binding site (TAATGARAT) in the promoter region. VP16 protein is present inside the infectious virion and it enters the host cell with the virus nucleocapsid. Once inside the cell, VP16 is able to cause the prompt expression of virus genes adjacent to its binding sites. I have examined the possibility that host gene expression may have the potential to be affected by the presence of VP16, a situation that could have important effects on alpha-herpesvirus replication. Bioinformatic methods were used to examine five human genome regions (each 16-73Mb in length) for the presence of genes with upstream TAATGARAT sequences. A total of fourteen characterized genes were identified indicating VP16 has the potential to activate their expression. The identified genes varied considerably in function, and did not appear to support a common theme or goal. The presence of an upstream TAATGARAT sequence was found to be well conserved in the homologous genes of chimpanzee where 11 of 14 homologous genes had upstream TAATGARAT’s. Conservation was poor, however, in three other species examined, mouse (2 of 14 genes), horse (2) and chicken (1). The observed pattern of conservation is interpreted to suggest that alpha-herpesviruses evolved the ability to benefit from expression of TAATGARAT-containing host genes and that this process was complete at or before the time chimpanzees and humans diverged evolutionarily (~7Mya).

Abstract 3811: G-quadruplex-forming genomic sequences homologous to Pu27 interact with c-Myc promoter and regulate c-Myc transcription

Abstract Introduction: The transcription factor c-Myc regulates a large array of genes, plays an important role in cell growth/differentiation, cell cycle progression and apoptosis hence is tightly regulated both at the transcriptional and protein level. The NHEIII1 upstream of P1 promoter regulates up to 80% of c-Myc transcription, and comprises a C/G rich region able to form G-quadruplex structure (Pu27). G-quadruplex forming motifs seem to be abundant in the genome, located in the promoter region of oncogenes. We identify 13 new potential G-quadruplex forming motifs with more than 90% identity with Pu27, located in different chromosomes of the human genome and none near gene promoter regions. Methods: BLAT search was used to identify the homologous sequences of Pu27. The G-quadruplex formation was evaluated by Circular Dichroism Spectrometry (CD), the specific interaction of each of the homologous sequences with the double strand DNA containing NHEIII1/Pu27 was documented by electrophoretic mobility shift assay (EMSA). We investigate 3 members of the Pu27 oligonucleotides family: Pu5- (42nu), Pu9- (20nu) and Pu27 (27nu) in: 1) a dose response (1, 3, 5 or 10µM)-time course (24, 48, 72 , 96 hrs) study on cell growth inhibition in 4 leukemia cell lines measured by MTT. 2) the effect on c-Myc expression in U937 measured by QRT-PCR, Flow-cytometry and Western Blot. 3) global gene expression evaluated in a gene array study in U937 exposed for 24h, 48h and 72h. Results: Thirteen oligonucleotide sequences almost identical to Pu27 were identified spread-out in 12 different chromosomes. Except for Pu27 (c-Myc promoter) none of the sequences were within a promoter region. All Pu27 homologous sequences contain the 5 runs of 3 to 4 Guanines, form G-quadruplex, and specifically bind to the dsDNA containing Pu27 sequence. The evaluation of a dose response/time course for Pu27 (Chr8), Pu5- (Chr5) and Pu9- (Chr9) on growth inhibition of U937, K562, HL-60 and Raji show a difference in sensitivity of the cell lines to the oligonucleotide sequences (Raji (more sensitive than)>U937>K562>HL-60), and a difference in efficiency of the oligonucleotide sequences (Pu27>Pu5->Pu9-). Gene and protein expression of c-Myc were similarly down regulated by the 3 sequences in U937 exposed to Pu27, Pu5- or Pu9- for 3 days. The analysis of the global gene expression reveal an early effect (24h) of Pu27 followed by Pu5- (48h), by 72h exposure all three Pu oligonucleotides will have affected genes involved in cell cycle progression/regulation, DNA damage repair and histone modification . Conclusion: We identify the presence of numerous sequences homologous to Pu27 located in different chromosomes sharing Pu27 structure and function. The addition of exogenous Pu27, Pu5- or Pu9- down regulate c-Myc expression and inhibit leukemia cells growth making this G-quadruplex structure a key regulator in NHEIII1 and a potential target for cancer therapy. Citation Format: Francine Rezzoug, Shelia D. Thomas, Eric C. Rouchka, Donald M. Miller. G-quadruplex-forming genomic sequences homologous to Pu27 interact with c-Myc promoter and regulate c-Myc transcription. [abstract]. In: Proceedings of the 105th Annual Meeting of the American Association for Cancer Research; 2014 Apr 5-9; San Diego, CA. Philadelphia (PA): AACR; Cancer Res 2014;74(19 Suppl):Abstract nr 3811. doi:10.1158/1538-7445.AM2014-3811

Abstract 1513: Use of complex oligonucleotide libraries for concurrent high-resolution fluorescence imaging of both DNA and RNA in various sample types

Abstract Fluorescence in situ Hybridization (FISH) is a powerful technique for determining the localization specific nucleic acid sequences within individual cells. Previously, the use of FISH has often been dependent upon access to cloned template DNA for the generation of probes, which can be difficult if clones for specific regions are unavailable, or if the genomic region of interest contains repetitive and/or other problematic sequences. We have developed the ability to chemically synthesize DNA in massively parallel reactions, which we have used to produce libraries of oligonucleotides up to 200 bases in length that can be utilized for the generation of FISH probes. The sequences of the oligonucleotides in these libraries are selected in silico using empirically determined criteria so as to avoid repetitive elements or regions homologous to other non-targeted loci. We have found that these oligonucleotide library-derived FISH probes can detect human genomic regions as small as 1.8 kb and as large as whole chromosomes in both metaphase and interphase cells, using the same simple assay protocol. Because of the inherent flexibility in our probe design methods, we can readily visualize regions rich in repeats and/or GC content. We have also used these oligonucleotide library-derived FISH probes to detect the localization of a variety of both coding and non-coding RNAs in fixed tissue culture cells and formalin-fixed paraffin-embedded tissue sections, using both conventional fluorescence and structured illumination microscopy. Simultaneous hybridization of FISH probes labeled with different fluorophores enables visualization of multiple sequences at once. Using probes designed specifically to transcribed vs. non-transcribed regions has enabled the simultaneously detect DNA and RNA from the same locus, or from two different loci, in the same FISH assay. The ability to generate high performance FISH probes using chemically synthesized oligo libraries that can simultaneously detect DNA and RNA yields a valuable tool for studies of how localization of specific nucleic acids impacts biological function. Citation Format: Robert A. Ach, Peter Tsang, Alicia Scheffer-Wong, Laurakay Bruhn, Weston Powell, Jesse Engreitz, Janine LaSalle, Mitchell Guttman, Alice Yamada. Use of complex oligonucleotide libraries for concurrent high-resolution fluorescence imaging of both DNA and RNA in various sample types. [abstract]. In: Proceedings of the 105th Annual Meeting of the American Association for Cancer Research; 2014 Apr 5-9; San Diego, CA. Philadelphia (PA): AACR; Cancer Res 2014;74(19 Suppl):Abstract nr 1513. doi:10.1158/1538-7445.AM2014-1513

Genome-wide Identification and Characterization of Fixed Human-Specific Regulatory Regions

Changes in gene regulatory networks are believed to have played an important role in the development of human-specific anatomy and behavior. We identified the human genome regions that show the typical chromatin marks of regulatory regions but cannot be aligned to other mammalian genomes. Most of these regions have become fixed in the human genome. Their regulatory targets are enriched in genes involved in neural processes, CNS development, and diseases such as autism, depression, and schizophrenia. Specific transposable elements contributing to the rewiring of the human regulatory network can be identified by the creation of human-specific regulatory regions. Our results confirm the relevance of regulatory evolution in the emergence of human traits and cognitive abilities and the importance of newly acquired genomic elements for such evolution.

Exploring the function of genetic variants in the non-coding genomic regions: approaches for identifying human regulatory variants affecting gene expression.

Understanding the genetic basis of human traits/diseases and the underlying mechanisms of how these traits/diseases are affected by genetic variations is critical for public health. Current genome-wide functional genomics data uncovered a large number of functional elements in the noncoding regions of human genome, providing new opportunities to study regulatory variants (RVs). RVs play important roles in transcription factor bindings, chromatin states and epigenetic modifications. Here, we systematically review an array of methods currently used to map RVs as well as the computational approaches in annotating and interpreting their regulatory effects, with emphasis on regulatory single-nucleotide polymorphism. We also briefly introduce experimental methods to validate these functional RVs.

MicroRNAs: short non-coding bullets of gain of function mutant p53 proteins.

TP53 gene mutations are present in more than half of all human cancers. The resulting proteins are mostly full-length with a single aminoacid change and are abundantly present in cancer cells. Some of mutant p53 proteins gain oncogenic activities through which actively contribute to the aberrant cell proliferation, increased resistance to apoptotic stimuli and ability to metastatize of cancer cells. Gain of function mutant p53 proteins can transcriptionally regulate the expression of a large plethora of target genes. This mainly occurs through the formation of oncogenic transcriptional competent complexes that include mutant p53 protein, known transcription factors, posttranslational modifiers and scaffold proteins. Mutant p53 protein can also transcriptionally regulate the expression of microRNAs, small non-coding RNAs that regulate gene expression at the posttranscriptional level. Each microRNA can putatively target the expression of hundred mRNAs and consequently impact on many cellular functions. Thus, gain of function mutant p53 proteins can exert their oncogenic activities through the modulation of both non-coding and coding regions of human genome.

Identification of non-coding RNAs with a new composite feature in the Hybrid Random Forest Ensemble algorithm.

To identify non-coding RNA (ncRNA) signals within genomic regions, a classification tool was developed based on a hybrid random forest (RF) with a logistic regression model to efficiently discriminate short ncRNA sequences as well as long complex ncRNA sequences. This RF-based classifier was trained on a well-balanced dataset with a discriminative set of features and achieved an accuracy, sensitivity and specificity of 92.11%, 90.7% and 93.5%, respectively. The selected feature set includes a new proposed feature, SCORE. This feature is generated based on a logistic regression function that combines five significant features—structure, sequence, modularity, structural robustness and coding potential—to enable improved characterization of long ncRNA (lncRNA) elements. The use of SCORE improved the performance of the RF-based classifier in the identification of Rfam lncRNA families. A genome-wide ncRNA classification framework was applied to a wide variety of organisms, with an emphasis on those of economic, social, public health, environmental and agricultural significance, such as various bacteria genomes, the Arthrospira (Spirulina) genome, and rice and human genomic regions. Our framework was able to identify known ncRNAs with sensitivities of greater than 90% and 77.7% for prokaryotic and eukaryotic sequences, respectively. Our classifier is available at http://ncrna-pred.com/HLRF.htm.

Mechanistic insight into ligand binding to G-quadruplex DNA.

Specific guanine-rich regions in human genome can form higher-order DNA structures called G-quadruplexes, which regulate many relevant biological processes. For instance, the formation of G-quadruplex at telomeres can alter cellular functions, inducing apoptosis. Thus, developing small molecules that are able to bind and stabilize the telomeric G-quadruplexes represents an attractive strategy for antitumor therapy. An example is 3-(benzo[d]thiazol-2-yl)-7-hydroxy-8-((4-(2-hydroxyethyl)piperazin-1-yl)methyl)-2H-chromen-2-one (compound 1), recently identified as potent ligand of the G-quadruplex [d(TGGGGT)]4 with promising in vitro antitumor activity. The experimental observations are suggestive of a complex binding mechanism that, despite efforts, has defied full characterization. Here, we provide through metadynamics simulations a comprehensive understanding of the binding mechanism of 1 to the G-quadruplex [d(TGGGGT)]4. In our calculations, the ligand explores all the available binding sites on the DNA structure and the free-energy landscape of the whole binding process is computed. We have thus disclosed a peculiar hopping binding mechanism whereas 1 is able to bind both to the groove and to the 3’ end of the G-quadruplex. Our results fully explain the available experimental data, rendering our approach of great value for further ligand/DNA studies.

NR4A3, a possibile oncogenic factor for neuroblastoma associated with CpGi methylation within the third exon

Aberrant methylation of Nr4a3 exon 3 CpG island (CpGi) was initially identified during multistep mouse skin carcinogenesis. Nr4a3 is also known as a critical gene for neuronal development. Thus, we examined the Nr4a3 exon 3 CpGi methylation in mouse brain tissues from 15-day embryos, newborns and 12-week-old adults and found significant increase of its methylation and Nr4a3 expression during mouse brain development after birth. In addition, homologous region in human genome was frequently and aberrantly methylated in neuroblastoma specimens. A quantitative analysis of DNA methylation revealed that hypomethylation of CpG islands on NR4A3 exon 3, but not on exon 1 was identified in three neuroblastomas compared with matched adrenal glands. Additional analysis for 20 neuroblastoma patients was performed and 8 of 20 showed hypomethylation of the CpGi on NR4A3 exon 3. The survival rate of those 8 patients was significantly lower compared with those in patients with hypermethylation. Immunohistochemical NR4A3 expression was generally faint in neuroblastoma tissues compared with normal tissues. Moreover, the MYCN amplified NB9 cell line showed hypomethylation and low expression of NR4A3, while the non-MYCN amplified NB69 cell line showed hypermethylation and high expression. These results indicate that DNA hypomethylation of the CpGi at NR4A3 exon 3 is associated with low NR4A3 expression, and correlates with poor prognosis of neuroblastoma. Since NR4A3 upregulation associated with the hypermethylation and neuronal differentiation in mice, poor prognosis of neuroblastoma associated with NR4A3 low expression may be partly explained by dysregulation of its differentiation.

Human genomic regions with exceptionally high levels of population differentiation identified from 911 whole-genome sequences.

BackgroundPopulation differentiation has proved to be effective for identifying loci under geographically localized positive selection, and has the potential to identify loci subject to balancing selection. We have previously investigated the pattern of genetic differentiation among human populations at 36.8 million genomic variants to identify sites in the genome showing high frequency differences. Here, we extend this dataset to include additional variants, survey sites with low levels of differentiation, and evaluate the extent to which highly differentiated sites are likely to result from selective or other processes.ResultsWe demonstrate that while sites with low differentiation represent sampling effects rather than balancing selection, sites showing extremely high population differentiation are enriched for positive selection events and that one half may be the result of classic selective sweeps. Among these, we rediscover known examples, where we actually identify the established functional SNP, and discover novel examples including the genes ABCA12, CALD1 and ZNF804, which we speculate may be linked to adaptations in skin, calcium metabolism and defense, respectively.ConclusionsWe identify known and many novel candidate regions for geographically restricted positive selection, and suggest several directions for further research.

Genome-wide analysis of DNA methylation in an APP/PS1 mouse model of Alzheimer’s disease

To investigate aberrant genome-wide CpG methylation patterns in cortex brain tissue of APP/PS1 mice and as compared to controls, which allows for identification of novel disease-associated genes. This study investigates the genome-wide DNA methylation profiles of the cortex from APP/PS1 transgenic mice and control mice using the Roche NimbleGen chip platform. Functional analysis was then conducted by Ingenuity Pathways Analysis system. The methylated DNA fragments in the genome of each sample were enriched by MeDIP and the whole-genome interrogations were hybridized to the Roche NimbleGen Human DNA Methylation 3x720 K CpG Island Plus RefSeq Promoter Array that cover 15,980 CpG islands and 20,404 reference gene promoter regions of the entire human genome. Analysis reveals 2346 CpG sites representing 485 unique genes as potentially associated with AD disease status pending confirmation in additional study. At the same time, these hyper-methylated genes display familial aggregation. An impairment of the transforming growth factor-β1 (TGF-β1) signaling pathway has been demonstrated to be specific to the AD brain and, particularly, to the early phase of the disease, supporting a role for epigenetic change of TGF-β1 in AD pathology. In future research, we will focus on TGF-β1, as it appeared to be the most promising candidate for AD.

Effect of Exercise on DNA Methylation and Metabolism in Human Adipose Tissue and Skeletal Muscle

in total glucose homeostasis as reduced insulin sensitivity in fat cells results in increased hydrolysis of triglycerides, which may further increase whole-body insulin resistance. Additionally, adipose tissue is an endocrine organ and its capacity to secrete adipokines changes in response to environmental stimuli, such as exercise. Future exercise intervention studies should aim to investigate a combination of tissues involved in human metabolism, including skeletal muscle, adipose tissue and blood. We recently described the genome-wide pattern of DNA methylation in human subcutaneous adipose tissue of 23 healthy men before and after a 6-month exercise intervention [4]. In total, 485,577 individual CpG sites were investigated, broadly covering all human genes and different genomic regions, and the results can be seen as reference for the human methylome in adipose tissue. These results were also related to mRNA expression and, for a third of the genes with changes in DNA methylation greater than 5%, we also detected altered mRNA levels. Interestingly, we found a total of 17,975 individual CpG sites in or near 7663 genes with altered levels of DNA methylation after the exercise intervention. The absolute difference in DNA methylation before versus after exercise ranges from 0.2 to 10.9%, corresponding with increased or decreased DNA methylation by 6–38%. More specifically, we detected 18 obesity and 21 Type 2 diabetes candidate genes; for example, TCF7L2 and KCNQ1, with one or more CpG sites altered in response to exercise. To further study the effect of DNA methylation on adipocyte metabolism, we silenced two genes that displayed both increased DNA methylation and decreased mRNA expression in adipose tissue in response to exercise. Silencing of Hdac4 and Ncor2, Exercise is a physiological stressor with the ability to regulate whole-body energy balance and glucose homeostasis. Regular exercise is important for maintaining physical fitness and has many beneficial effects on the immune system and mental health, as well as the potential to prevent or treat metabolic diseases including obesity, cardiovascular diseases and Type 2 diabetes. Epigenetics has been suggested as a link between the ever-changing environment and the genome, with the potential to alter gene expression [1]. The complex epigenetic mechanisms that modulate gene expression include DNA methylation and histone modifications. Epigenetics, therefore, has the potential to contribute to phenotypic variation; however, to what extent is currently hard to tell and is likely to differ between cell types and individuals. Hence, it is also likely that the effect of physical exercise on gene expression and physiological parameters could partly be mediated by epigenetic factors. Studies investigating the effect of exercise on DNA methylation in human tissues are starting to emerge. However, as the epigenome differs between cell types [2], the number of methylomes to analyze is numerous. Most studies so far have focused on epigenetic changes in human skeletal muscle in response to exercise, and both acute and long-term interventions. The rationale for these studies is to find a mechanism for the finding that exercise alters mRNA and protein levels of genes involved in mitochondrial function and fuel utilization in skeletal muscle [3]. Less attention has been paid to the role of exercise on epigenetic changes in adipose tissue, and surprisingly also on the transcriptomic changes likely to occur in adipose tissue in response to exercise. Although adipose tissue only accounts for a small proportion of glucose clearance, it is important

Positive and Negative Design for Nonconsensus Protein-DNA Binding Affinity in the Vicinity of Functional Binding Sites

Recent experiments provide an unprecedented view of protein-DNA binding in yeast and human genomes at single-nucleotide resolution. These measurements, performed over large cell populations, show quite generally that sequence-specific transcription regulators with well-defined protein-DNA consensus motifs bind only a fraction among all consensus motifs present in the genome. Alternatively, proteins in vivo often bind DNA regions lacking known consensus sequences. The rules determining whether a consensus motif is functional remain incompletely understood. Here we predict that genomic background surrounding specific protein-DNA binding motifs statistically modulates the binding of sequence-specific transcription regulators to these motifs. In particular, we show that nonconsensus protein-DNA binding in yeast is statistically enhanced, on average, around functional Reb1 motifs that are bound as compared to nonfunctional Reb1 motifs that are unbound. The landscape of nonconsensus protein-DNA binding around functional CTCF motifs in human demonstrates a more complex behavior. In particular, human genomic regions characterized by the highest CTCF occupancy, show statistically reduced level of nonconsensus protein-DNA binding. Our findings suggest that nonconsensus protein-DNA binding is fine-tuned around functional binding sites using a variety of design strategies.

Predicting distinct organization of transcription factor binding sites on the promoter regions: a new genome-based approach to expand human embryonic stem cell regulatory network

Self-proliferation and differentiation into distinct cell types have been made stem cell as a promising target for regenerative medicine. Several key genes can regulate self-renewal and pluripotency of embryonic stem cells (hESCs). They work together and build a transcriptional hierarchy. Coexpression and coregulation of genes control by common regulatory elements on the promoter regions. Consequently, distinct organization and combination of transcription factor binding sites (TFBSs modules) on promoter regions, in view of order and distance, lead to a common specific expression pattern within a set of genes. To gain insights into transcriptional regulation of hESCs, we selected promoter regions of eleven common expressed hESC genes including SOX2, LIN28, STAT3, NANOG, LEFTB, TDGF1, POU5F1, FOXD3, TERF1, REX1 and GDF3 to predict activating regulatory modules on promoters and discover key corresponding transcription factors. Then, promoter regions in human genome were explored for modules and 328 genes containing the same modules were detected. Using microarray data, we verified that 102 of 328 genes commonly upregulate in hESCs. Also, using output data of DNA–protein interaction assays, we found that 42 of all predicted genes are targets of SOX2, NANOG and POU5F1. Additionally, a protein interaction network of hESC genes was constructed based on biological processes, and interestingly, 126 downregulated genes along with upregulated ones identified by promoter analysis were predicted in the network. Based on the results, we suggest that the identified genes, coregulating with common hESC genes, represent a novel approach for gene discovery based on whole genome promoter analysis irrespective of gene expression. Altogether, promoter profiling can be used to expand hESC transcriptional regulatory circuitry by analysis of shared functional sequences between genes. This approach provides a clear image on underlying regulatory mechanism of gene expression profile and offers a novel approach in designing gene networks of stem cell.

MHCcluster, a method for functional clustering of MHC molecules

The identification of peptides binding to major histocompatibility complexes (MHC) is a critical step in the understanding of T cell immune responses. The human MHC genomic region (HLA) is extremely polymorphic comprising several thousand alleles, many encoding a distinct molecule. The potentially unique specificities remain experimentally uncharacterized for the vast majority of HLA molecules. Likewise, for nonhuman species, only a minor fraction of the known MHC molecules have been characterized. Here, we describe a tool, MHCcluster, to functionally cluster MHC molecules based on their predicted binding specificity. The method has a flexible web interface that allows the user to include any MHC of interest in the analysis. The output consists of a static heat map and graphical tree-based visualizations of the functional relationship between MHC variants and a dynamic TreeViewer interface where both the functional relationship and the individual binding specificities of MHC molecules are visualized. We demonstrate that conventional sequence-based clustering will fail to identify the functional relationship between molecules, when applied to MHC system, and only through the use of the predicted binding specificity can a correct clustering be found. Clustering of prevalent HLA-A and HLA-B alleles using MHCcluster confirms the presence of 12 major specificity groups (supertypes) some however with highly divergent specificities. Importantly, some HLA molecules are shown not to fit any supertype classification. Also, we use MHCcluster to show that chimpanzee MHC class I molecules have a reduced functional diversity compared to that of HLA class I molecules. MHCcluster is available at www.cbs.dtu.dk/services/MHCcluster-2.0.

Sequence classification with side effect machines evolved via ring optimization

The explosion of available sequence data necessitates the development of sophisticated machine learning tools with which to analyze them. This study introduces a sequence-learning technology called side effect machines. It also applies a model of evolution which simulates the evolution of a ring species to the training of the side effect machines. A comparison is done between side effect machines evolved in the ring structure and side effect machines evolved using a standard evolutionary algorithm based on tournament selection. At the core of the training of side effect machines is a nearest neighbor classifier. A parameter study was performed to investigate the impact of the division of training data into examples for nearest neighbor assessment and training cases. The parameter study demonstrates that parameter setting is important in the baseline runs but had little impact in the ring-optimization runs. The ring optimization technique was also found to exhibit improved and also more reliable training performance. Side effect machines are tested on two types of synthetic data, one based on GC-content and the other checking for the ability of side effect machines to recognize an embedded motif. Three types of biological data are used, a data set with different types of immune-system genes, a data set with normal and retro-virally derived human genomic sequence, and standard and nonstandard initiation regions from the cytochrome-oxidase subunit one in the mitochondrial genome.

Abstract 4205: Simultaneous high resolution fluorescence imaging of cellular DNA and RNA enabled by complex oligonucleotide libraries in various sample types.

Abstract Fluorescence in situ Hybridization (FISH) is a powerful technique for determining the structure, organization, and localization of specific nucleic acid sequences within individual cells. However, the use of FISH has often been dependent upon access to cloned template DNA for the generation of probes, which can be difficult if clones for specific regions are unavailable, or if the genomic region of interest contains repetitive and/or other problematic sequences. We have leveraged our ability to chemically synthesize DNA in massively parallel reactions to produce libraries of oligonucleotides up to 200 bases in length that can be used for the generation of FISH probes. The sequences of the oligonucleotides in these libraries are selected in silico using empirically determined criteria so as to avoid repetitive elements or regions homologous to other non-targeted loci. Using oligonucleotide library-derived FISH probes on DNA, human genomic regions as small as 1.8 kb and as large as whole chromosomes can be visualized in both metaphase and interphase cells using the same simple assay protocol. Because of the inherent flexibility in our probe design methods, we readily visualized regions rich in repeats and/or GC content. We have also used these oligonucleotide library-derived FISH probes to detect the localization of a variety of both coding and non-coding RNAs in fixed cells, using both conventional fluorescence and structured illumination microscopy. Simultaneous hybridization of FISH probes labeled with different fluorophores enables visualization of multiple sequences at once. Using probes designed specifically to transcribed vs. non-transcribed regions, we have been able to simultaneously detect DNA and RNA from the same locus in the same FISH assay. We have successfully used this technique in several types of fixed tissue culture cells as well as in formalin-fixed paraffin-embedded tissue sections. Our oligo FISH methods are readily compatible with the co-detection of cellular proteins by immunocytochemistry. The ability to generate high performance FISH probes using chemically synthesized oligo libraries that can work flexibly with co-detection of other molecules yields a valuable tool for studies of how localization of specific nucleic acids impacts biological function. Citation Format: Robert A. Ach, Peter Tsang, Alicia Scheffer-Wong, Laurakay Bruhn, Weston Powell, Janine LaSalle, Alice Yamada. Simultaneous high resolution fluorescence imaging of cellular DNA and RNA enabled by complex oligonucleotide libraries in various sample types. [abstract]. In: Proceedings of the 104th Annual Meeting of the American Association for Cancer Research; 2013 Apr 6-10; Washington, DC. Philadelphia (PA): AACR; Cancer Res 2013;73(8 Suppl):Abstract nr 4205. doi:10.1158/1538-7445.AM2013-4205

Comparative transgenic analysis of enhancers from the human SHOX and mouse Shox2 genomic regions

Disruption of presumptive enhancers downstream of the human SHOX gene (hSHOX) is a frequent cause of the zeugopodal limb defects characteristic of Léri-Weill dyschondrosteosis (LWD). The closely related mouse Shox2 gene (mShox2) is also required for limb development, but in the more proximal stylopodium. In this study, we used transgenic mice in a comparative approach to characterize enhancer sequences in the hSHOX and mShox2 genomic regions. Among conserved noncoding elements (CNEs) that function as enhancers in vertebrate genomes, those that are maintained near paralogous genes are of particular interest given their ancient origins. Therefore, we first analyzed the regulatory potential of a genomic region containing one such duplicated CNE (dCNE) downstream of mShox2 and hSHOX. We identified a strong limb enhancer directly adjacent to the mShox2 dCNE that recapitulates the expression pattern of the endogenous gene. Interestingly, this enhancer requires sequences only conserved in the mammalian lineage in order to drive strong limb expression, whereas the more deeply conserved sequences of the dCNE function as a neural enhancer. Similarly, we found that a conserved element downstream of hSHOX (CNE9) also functions as a neural enhancer in transgenic mice. However, when the CNE9 transgenic construct was enlarged to include adjacent, non-conserved sequences frequently deleted in LWD patients, the transgene drove expression in the zeugopodium of the limbs. Therefore, both hSHOX and mShox2 limb enhancers are coupled to distinct neural enhancers. This is the first report demonstrating the activity of cis-regulatory elements from the hSHOX and mShox2 genomic regions in mammalian embryos.