Regional Maximum Horizontal Compressive Stress Research Articles

Eikonal equation-basedP-wave seismic azimuthal anisotropy tomography of the crustal structure beneath northern California

SUMMARYDelineating spatial variations of seismic anisotropy in the crust is of great importance for the understanding of structural heterogeneities, regional stress regime and ongoing crustal dynamics. In this study, we present a 3-D anisotropic P-wave velocity model of the crust beneath northern California by using the eikonal equation-based seismic azimuthal anisotropy tomography method. The velocity heterogeneities under different geological units are well resolved. The thickness of the low-velocity sediment at the Great Valley Sequence is estimated to be about 10 km. The high-velocity anomaly underlying Great Valley probably indicates the existence of ophiolite bodies. Strong velocity contrasts are revealed across the Hayward Fault (2–9 km) and San Andreas Fault (2–12 km). In the upper crust (2–9 km), the fast velocity directions (FVDs) are generally fault-parallel in the northern Coast Range, which may be caused by geological structure; while the FVDs are mainly NE–SW in Great Valley and the northern Sierra Nevada possibly due to the regional maximum horizontal compressive stress. In contrast, seismic anisotropy in the mid-lower crust (12–22 km) may be attributed to the alignment of mica schists. The anisotropy contrast across the San Andreas Fault may imply different mechanisms of crustal deformation on the two sides of the fault. Both the strong velocity contrasts and the high angle (∼45° or above) between the FVDs and the strikes of faults suggest that the faults are mechanically weak in the San Francisco bay area (2–6 km). This study suggests that the eikonal equation-based seismic azimuthal anisotropy tomography is a valuable tool to investigate crustal heterogeneities and tectonic deformation.

Spatial analysis of an intra-plate basaltic volcanic field in a compressional tectonic setting: South-eastern Australia

The Newer Volcanics Province (NVP) is a Pliocene to Recent intra-plate basaltic volcanic field (BVF) that has formed in a compressive tectonic setting (σv<σhmin<σHmax) and is not readily attributed to a single geodynamic process. A comprehensive spatial analysis of both monogenetic eruption centres and coeval vents of the NVP constrain factors that control the distribution and emplacement of volcanoes. A point-set of 434 eruption centres totalling 726 vents are divided into three geographical sub-provinces for analysis. Kernel density estimation and Poisson nearest neighbour analysis are used to scrutinize the distribution of eruption centres. A simple and novel fitted regression line method is used to determine the orientation of coeval vents, and Hough transform and two-point azimuth methods are used to identify alignments and alignment trends between eruption centres. The distribution of eruption centres and their relative spatial density corresponds with the extent of thinner lithosphere. Eruption centres of the NVP have a clustered distribution whilst smaller sub-sets of eruption centres are distributed more uniformly. The main alignment trends between coeval vents related to individual dikes and between eruption centres related to successive temporally discrete dikes are primarily oriented nearly parallel with pre-existing crustal fault trends. The frequency of volcanic alignments shows faults oriented nearly parallel to the orientation of the regional maximum horizontal compressive stress (σ1) are favourably utilised by intrusions over other fault trends. The depth from which pre-existing faults facilitate dike propagation is not constrained. We interpret they are likely important in preventing dikes from stalling and forming sills under a compressive stress field in the case of the NVP. It is also observed that coeval vent alignments are more strongly aligned in areas overlying consolidated basement relative to areas of poorly consolidated basin sediments. This could be explained by poorly aligned groups of vents being fed by shallow sills, preferentially forming in layered basin sediments.

Orientation of the Eruption Fissures Controlled by a Shallow Magma Chamber in Miyakejima

Orientation of the eruption fissures and composition of the lavas of the Miyakejima volcano indicate tectonic influence of a shallow magma chamber on the distribution of eruption fissures. We examined the distributions and magmatic compositions of 23 fissures that formed within the last 2800 years, based on a field survey and a new dataset of 14C ages. The dominant orientation of the eruption fissures in the central portion of the volcano was found to be NE-SW, which is perpendicular to the direction of regional maximum horizontal compressive stress (σHmax). Magmas that show evidences of magma mixing between basaltic and andesitic magmas erupted mainly from the eruption fissures with a higher offset angle from the regional σHmax direction. The presence of a shallow dike-shaped magma chamber controls the distribution of the eruption fissures. The injection of basaltic magma into the shallow andesitic magma chamber caused the temporal rise of internal magmatic pressure in the shallow magma chamber. Dikes extending from the andesitic magma chamber intrude along the local compressive stress field which is generated by the internal excess pressure of the andesitic magma chamber. As the result, the eruption fissures trend parallel to the elongation direction of the shallow magma chamber. Injection of basaltic magma into the shallow andesitic magma chamber caused the magma mixing. Some basaltic dikes from the deep-seated magma chamber reach the ground surface without intersection with the andesitic magma chamber. The patterns of the eruption fissures can be modified in the future as was observed in the case of the destruction of the shallow magma chamber during the 2000 AD eruption.

Anisotropic upper crust above the aftershock zone of the 2013 Ms 7.0 Lushan earthquake from the shear wave splitting analysis

AbstractWe have conducted a systematic shear wave splitting analysis using 1000 selected aftershocks with M &gt; 2 from the 2013 Ms 7.0 Lushan earthquake along the Longmenshan fault system in southwest China. Polarization directions of fast shear waves show a bimodal distribution with one dominant direction approximately parallel to the fault strike and the other close to the regional maximum horizontal compressive stress direction. This indicates that in this area mechanisms causing crustal seismic anisotropy are both stress induced and fault zone structure controlled. Delay times between fast and slow shear waves do not show a clear trend of increase for deeper events, suggesting the anisotropic zone is mostly above the aftershocks, which are generally located below 8 km. We further applied a shear wave splitting tomography method to measured delay times to characterize the spatial distribution of seismic anisotropy. The three‐dimensional anisotropic percentage model shows strong anisotropy above 8 km but low anisotropy below it. The mainshock slip zone and its aftershocks are associated with very low or negligible anisotropy and high velocity, indicating that the zones with high anisotropy and low velocity above 8 km are mechanically weak and it is difficult for stress to accumulate there. The main and back reverse fault zones are associated with high anisotropic anomalies above ∼8 km, likely caused by shear fabric or microfractures aligned parallel to the fault zone.

Shear-wave splitting in the crust beneath the southeast Capital area of North China

This study focuses on the southeast Capital area of North China (38.5–39.85° N, 115.5–118.5° E). Shear-wave splitting parameters at 20 seismic stations are obtained by a systematic analysis method applied to data recorded by the Capital Area Seismograph Network (CASN) between the years 2002 and 2005. Although some differences in the results are observed, the average fast-wave polarization is N88.2° W ± 40.7° and the average normalized slow wave time delay is 3.55 ± 2.93 ms/km. The average polarization is consistent with the regional maximum horizontal compressive stress and also with the maximum principal strain derived from global positioning system measurements in North China. In spite of the uneven distribution of faults around the array stations that likely introduce some amount of scatter in the shear-wave splitting measurements, site-dependent polarizations of fast shear wave are clearly observed: in the northern half of the study area, the polarizations at CASN stations show E–W direction, whereas in the southern half the polarizations exhibit a variety of possible azimuths, thus suggesting dissimilar stress field and tectonic frame in both areas. Comparing the splitting results with those previously obtained in the northwest part of the region, we find a difference in polarization of about 20° between the southeast and northwest parts of the Capital area; also, in the southeast Capital area the average time delay is smaller than in the northwest Capital area, thus making clear that the magnitude of crustal seismic anisotropy is not the same in the two zones. Being the shear-wave splitting polarizations in the southeast Capital area, which lies on the basin, clearly different from the observed polarizations in the northwest Capital area, where uplifts and basin converge, it is quite evident that the shear-wave splitting results are consequence of the tectonics and stress field affecting the two regions.

Anisotropy in the Shallow Crust Observed around the San Andreas Fault Before and After the 2004 M 6.0 Parkfield Earthquake

Local seismic arrays were deployed at two locations along the San An- dreas fault (SAF) near Parkfield, California, before and after the 2004 M 6.0 Parkfield earthquake. Using local earthquakes we determine the anisotropic field within 1- 2 km of the main trace of the SAF at the two array locations separated by 12 km. The initial array, near the SAFOD site, was deployed for six weeks in October and November 2003, and the second array, located near the town of Parkfield, was de- ployed for 3 months following the 28 September 2004 M 6.0 Parkfield earthquake. We find the fast shear-wave polarization direction nearly fault-parallel (N40W) for stations on the main fault trace and within 100 m to the southwest of the SAF at both array locations. These fault-parallel measurements span the 100- to 150-m-wide zone of pervasive cracking and damage interpreted from fault-zone-trapped waves associated with the main fault core (Li et al., 2004, 2006). Outside of this zone, the fast orientations are scattered with some preference for orientations near N10E, roughly parallel to the regional maximum horizontal compressive stress direction (rh). In addition, fast directions are preferentially oriented parallel to a northern branch of the SAF recorded on stations in the 2004 Parkfield deployment. The measured anisotropy is likely due to a combination of stress-aligned micro- cracks away from the fault and shear fabric within the highly evolved fault core. The majority of our measurements are taken outside of the main fault core, and we es- timate the density of microcracks from the measured delay times. Apparent crack densities are approximately 3%, with large scatter. The data suggest weak depth dependence to the measured delay times for source depths between 2 and 7 km. Below 7-km source depth, the delay times do not correlate with depth suggesting higher confining pressure is forcing the microcracks to close. No coseismic variation in the anisotropic parameters is observed, suggesting little to no influence on measured splitting due to the 2004 M 6.0 Parkfield earthquake. However, the premainshock and postmainshock data presented here are from arrays separated by 12 km, limiting our sensitivity to small temporal changes in anisotropy.

Study on S wave splitting in Dayao earthquake sequence with M=6.2 and M=6.1 in Yunnan in 2003

The polarization direction of fast wave and the delay time between fast and slow wave were measured for two earthquake sequences occurred continuously on 21 July (M=6.2) and 16 October (M=6.1) in Dayao, Yunnan in 2003 using cross-correlation coefficient method, after determining the high-resolution hypocentral locations of the earthquake sequences using the double-difference earthquake location algorithm. The results indicated that ① The phenomena of S wave splitting are obvious in the two earthquake sequences, and the average polarization directions of fast wave in most stations are almost consistent with regional maximum horizontal compressive stress direction except the station Santai. There are bimodal fast directions in the polarization directions at station Santai and the mean polarization direction is N80°E, indicating an inconsistent phenomenon referred to regional maximum horizontal compressive stress direction. ② There is no apparent relation between delay time and focal depth in the sequences, but the polarization direction show different character in different delay time range. ③ The comparison of S wave splitting results in the two earthquake sequences show that the polarization direction in M=6.2 earthquake sequence is more scattered and its average fast direction is 20° larger than that of M=6.1 sequence, and the delay times between two sequences show a little difference. ④ The spatial variation in S wave splitting polarization direction may be due to the stress disturbance imposed by the M=6.2 and the M=6.1 mainshocks on regional background stress field.

Characterization of the time‐dependent strain field at seismogenic depths using first‐motion focal mechanisms: Observations of large‐scale decadal variations in stress along the San Andreas Fault system

We present a method for summing moment tensors derived from first‐motion focal mechanisms to study temporal dependence in features of the subsurface regional strain field. Time‐dependent processes are inferred by comparing mechanisms summed over differing time periods. We apply this methodology to seismogenic zones in central and southern California using focal mechanisms produced by the Northern and Southern California Seismograph Networks for events during 1980–1999. We find a consistent pattern in both the style of deformation (strike‐slip versus compressional) and seismicity rate across the entire region. If these temporal variations are causally related, it suggests a temporal change in the regional‐scale stress field. One change consistent with the observations is a rotation in the regional maximum horizontal compressive stress direction, followed by a reversal to the original direction. Depending upon the dominant style of deformation locally, this change in orientation of the regional stress will tend to either enhance or hinder deformation. The mode of enhanced deformation can range from increased microseismicity and creep to major earthquakes. We hypothesize that these temporal changes in the regional stress field are the result of subtle changes in apparent relative plate motion between the Pacific and North American plates, perhaps due to long‐range postseismic stress diffusion. Others have hypothesized that small changes in plate motion over thousands of years, and/or over decades, are responsible for changes in the style of deformation in southern California. We propose that such changes, over the course of just a few years, also affect the style of deformation.

Spatial relationships between natural seismicity and faults, southeastern Ontario and north-central New York state

A statistical analysis was carried out to investigate spatial associations between natural seismicity and faults in southeastern Ontario and north-central New York State (between 73°18′ and 77°00′W and 43°30′ and 45°18′N). The study area is situated to the west of the seismically active St. Lawrence fault zone, and to the east of the Lake Ontario basin where recently documented geological and geophysical evidence points to possible neotectonic faulting. The weights of evidence method was used to judge the spatial associations between seismic events and populations of faults in eight arbitrarily defined orientation groups. Spatial analysis of data sets for seismic events in the periods 1930–1970 and post-1970 suggest stronger spatial associations between earthquake epicentres and faults with strikes that lie in the NW–SE quadrants, and weaker spatial associations of epicentres with faults that have strikes in the NE–SW quadrants. The strongest spatial associations were determined for groups of faults with strikes between 101° and 146°. The results suggest that faults striking broadly NW–SE, at high angles to the regional maximum horizontal compressive stress, are statistically more likely to be spatially associated with seismic events than faults striking broadly NE–SW. If the positive spatial associations can be interpreted as indicating genetic relationships between earthquakes and mapped faults, then the results may suggest that, as a population, NW–SE trending faults are more likely to be seismically active than NE–SW striking faults. Detailed geological studies of faults in the study area would be required to determine possible neotectonic displacements and the kinematics of the displacements.

Constraints on crustal composition beneath a metamorphic core complex: results from 3-component wide-angle seismic data along the eastern flank of the Ruby Mountains, Nevada

Metamorphic core complexes expose rocks deformed at deep upper to middle crustal levels during extreme crustal extension. However, mechanisms of crustal extension and exhumation of core complexes remain to be fully understood. Detailed study of crustal velocity structure and inferences about the composition of the crust beneath core complexes (and nearby) provide useful constraints on core-complex evolution. P- and S-wave velocity structures determined from seismic experiments along the eastern flank of the Ruby Mountains metamorphic core complex, Nevada, show that the crust can be divided into three main layers corresponding to the upper, middle and lower crust. We interpreted crustal composition by integrating results of P-wave velocities ( V p), S-wave velocities ( V s), Poisson's ratios ( σ), seismic anisotropy, and reflection character with published geologic maps of the area. Near-surface estimates of V p, V s, σ, and anisotropy of 1.90–4.8 km/s, 1.01–2.75 km/s, 0.25–0.33, and 0.6–2.5%, respectively, are consistent with surface exposures of unconsolidated to consolidated sedimentary rocks, limestone, dolomite, siltstone, sandstone, porous sandstone, conglomerate, and weathered granite. Results from analysis of reflection responses, V p, V s, σ, and anisotropy also indicate that: (1) upper crustal rocks most likely consist of metaquartzite, schist, granite gneiss, and granite–granodiorite with V p of 5.80–6.25 km/s, V s of 3.20–3.72 km/s, σ of 0.22–0.25, and anisotropy of 0.6–2.5%; (2) possible middle crustal rocks are paragranulite, felsic granulite, felsic amphibolite gneiss, granite–granodiorite, and mica–quartz schist with V p of 6.35–6.45 km/s, V s of 3.70–3.75 km/s, and σ of 0.24; and (3) lower crustal rocks most likely consist of granulite- rather than amphibolite-facies rocks with V p of 6.60–6.80 km/s, V s of 3.85–3.92 km/s, σ of 0.24–0.25, and anisotropy of <3%. Our principal conclusions are: (1) significant addition of gabbroic rocks (underplating) is unlikely in the lower crust; (2) lower crustal rocks were stretched into sub-horizontal geometries with aligned minerals during extension, creating seismic lamellae in the lower crust; (3) present-day seismic velocities of highly extended core complex crust and normally extended Basin and Range crust are similar; and (4) orientations of fast shear waves near the surface and in the upper crust are sub-parallel to the regional maximum horizontal compressive stress in the Nevada part of the Basin and Range province.

Shear wave splitting observations and implications on stress regimes in the Los Angeles basin, California

A systematic analysis of three‐component seismograms recorded at 15 stations from earthquakes occurring at depths of 5 to 18 km beneath the Los Angeles basin and adjacent areas during the period between 1988 and 1994 shows 20 to 160 ms shear wave splitting. Shallow events exhibit little splitting, while deeper events show progressively greater splitting with depth. The preferred polarization direction of the fast shear wave is nearly N‐S, consistent with the direction of the regional maximum horizontal compressive stress but independent of the azimuth between the event and station. We interpret that the shear wave splitting is caused by fluid‐filled crustal microcracks and macrofractures aligned in the N‐S direction. The shear wave splitting observations of 2.8 to 7.8 ms/km can be explained in terms of an anisotropic crust containing vertical cracks with the apparent crack density of 0.023–0.08. On a regional basis, the crack density may vary from station to station, but we find that the apparent crack density in the strike‐slip region of the Newport‐Inglewood fault and the Whittier fault is higher than in the reverse‐thrusting Santa Monica Mountains and Palos Verdes Hills. No systematic change of shear wave splitting in the Los Angeles basin is found in this study.

Emplacement of a radiating dike swarm in western Vinmara Planitia, Venus: interpretation of the regional stress field orientation and subsurface magmatic configuration

Magellan radar data from western Vinmara Planitia on Venus reveal a system of radiating lineaments extending 450 km from a small central annulus. Spatial variations in lineament density, orientation, and morphology, as well as structural and volcanic correlations, provide strong evidence that formation of the lineaments was related to subsurface dike emplacement. We infer from the observed surface deformation that the dikes were emplaced laterally, at shallow depth, from a large central magma reservoir. This configuration is analogous to that of radiating dike swarms found on Earth. Because dikes inject normal to the least compressive stress direction, swarm plan view geometry will reveal the greatest horizontal compressive stress trajectories. We interpret strongly radial orientations near the swarm center to represent radial stresses linked to pressurization of the magma reservoir. Increasingly non-radial behavior dominating at greater distances is interpreted to reflect a N60E±20° regional maximum horizontal compressive stress. Contrary to previous inferences that a persistent E–W compressive stress dominated throughout, analysis of the arachnoid indicates that a N60E compressive stress must have existed across western Vinmara Planitia during a portion of its deformation. This and the absence of distributed shear within the adjacent deformation belts indicates that the regional maximum horizontal compression orientation has varied over time. Comparison between the regional stress orientations inferred from the arachnoid and several nearby ridge belts illustrates that stress orientations may potentially be useful for determining relative belt ages in areas where the timing of ridge belt formation is difficult to assess by more direct means. This demonstrates one way that identification and analysis of giant radiating dike swarms can provide new information critical for regional stress interpretations on Venus.

On shear-wave splitting in the Los Angeles basin

Three-component seismograms at the three USC stations, PVP, GFP and DHB, have been examined. Most earthquakes, with magnitudes ranging from 1.4 to 5.0, within a period from 1985 to 1988, show evidence of shear-wave splitting. The preferred polarization of the first split-shear wave arrivals at PVP is nearly in N-S which is consistent with both regional maximum horizontal compressive stress direction and local subsurface fault strike, showing that shear-wave splitting is caused by liquid-filled cracks or fractures associated with the N-S faulting. The polarizations of first shear wave arrivals at GFP are roughly divided into two almost perpendicular directions, ENE-WSW and NNW-SSE, which are parallel or perpendicular to the strike of the geology or topography near the station. Because GFP is near the foothills of Santa Monica Mountains, the shear-wave arrivals may be disturbed by topographic irregularities and by subsurface dipping interfaces. Two examples at DHB clearly display shear-wave splitting. Their polarizations of shear wave are in the direction of N-S, which agree with the fragmentary surface and fracturing direction there. From some relatively reliable delay times, the crack densities at three stations are given, that is, 0.025 at PVP, 0.020 at GFP and 0.045 at DGB. No systematic change of shear-wave polarization is discovered in this study.

Geology of the Mount St. Helens area: Record of discontinuous volcanic and plutonic activity in the Cascade Arc of southern Washington

The Quaternary edifice of Mount St. Helens volcano was built upon a deeply eroded terrane of gently folded and altered volcanic and plutonic rocks that represent the core of the Tertiary Cascade magmatic arc. These rocks constitute an east dipping homoclinal sequence, several kilometers thick, of subaerially erupted mafic to silicic flows and volcaniclastic strata; K‐Ar ages from this section range from about 28 to 23 Ma (late Oligocene and earliest Miocene), which corresponds to an apparent lull in Cascade volcanism to the north of Mount Rainier. Volcanism was essentially continuous during this period of time, and neither a well‐defined base nor top of the section is exposed within the mapped area. Basalt and basaltic andesite dominate the lower part of the mid‐Tertiary section, whereas andesitic and dacitic rocks comprise most of the upper part. This section was intruded by numerous mafic to silicic dikes, sills, and irregular plutonic bodies, most no more than a few million years younger than their host rocks, and subjected to pervasive burial metamorphism and widespread hydrothermal alteration. Large areas of hornfelsed rock surrounding even relatively small intrusions indicate that the proportion of plutonic rock becomes significantly greater at shallow depth beneath the existing erosion surface. A large granitic pluton intruded the mid‐Tertiary section north of Spirit Lake at about 21 Ma. The Earl porphyry copper deposit occurs within the pluton but appears too young (17 Ma) to be genetically related to it. In contrast to the rather continuous and voluminous Oligocene to early Miocene activity, volcanism since then in the Mount St. Helens area has been localized and Volumetrically minor. Products of three younger eruptive periods have been recognized: a sequence of 15 m.y. old pyroxene andesite flows resting unconformably on mid‐Tertiary strata south of Mount St. Helens, widespread shallow dikes and sills of pyroxene andesite between 10 and 8 m.y. old, and compositionally diverse rocks erupted during the past 3 m.y. The Quaternary lavas are more potassic than the Tertiary lavas and typically contain phenocrysts of hornblende and biotite, which are absent from the older rocks. A number of Tertiary structures define a broad NNE trending zone that may reflect a deep‐seated lithospheric flaw that has controlled the locus of Cascade magmatism in southern Washington for the past 25 m.y. Mount St. Helens lies within this zone at the intersection of the NNW striking St. Helens seismic zone (SHZ) and an ENE trending alignment of Pleistocene silicic plug‐domes. No surface breakage has been detected along the SHZ, which is apparently very young. The linear zone of silicic vents is probably controlled by a fault that has been interpreted from seismic records to occur directly beneath the volcano. This zone parallels the directions of regional maximum horizontal compressive stress and North America/Juan de Fuca plate convergence. Mount St. Helens is an example of a low‐volume tectonically controlled magmatic system in an early stage of development.