Regional Human Development Research Articles

Impact of fundamentalism on human capital, women's social status and demographics: Evidence from Islamic state of Iraq and Syria (ISIS) in Iraq

I analyze the impact of the religious fundamentalists’ rule on regional human capital development and women's social status by exploiting the unexpected rise and fall of Islamic State of Iraq and Syria (ISIS) in northwestern Iraq (2014∼2017). I find a large downward impact of exposure to ISIS rule on female human capital and an upward one on fertility rate for women who were school-aged at the time of ISIS occupation. These women express more patriarchal family norms and are more likely to belong to a polygamous union, implying a decline in women's social status. This decline in human capital and the rise of patriarchal family norms doesn't cause a significant negative impact on the development of their pre-school-aged children, possibly implying that these women didn't decrease parenting effort for their children. In summary, even a brief period of extremist rule has potentially large impacts on human capital development and culture.

Spatial inequality in sub-national human development index: A case study of West Bengal districts

Human Development and its regional disparity is an area of topical interest. In this paper, we consider space as an instrumental variable in understanding this disparity and explore spatial interdependence in human development across districts of West Bengal using alternate indicators of human development. This study uses both the standard United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) technique and an alternative methodology to construct a sub-national human development index. Spatial interdependence is measured using Moran's I coefficient and Local Indicators of Spatial Autocorrelation (LISA) cluster maps. Spatial regression is used to evaluate the spatial association between the Human Development Index as the dependent variable and a few independent variables. A high degree of clustering in all three dimensions of human development is observed among the southern districts of West Bengal. The pattern of cluster maps indicates the presence of both the growth pole process and the metropole-periphery process in the state. Spatial regression results indicate that the share of socially backward class population and urbanization rate are important variables affecting regional human development patterns. The findings of this study suggest policies targeted to promote social inclusion and urbanization linked with better access to economic opportunities in the lagging areas can help reduce regional imbalances.

Global patterns of lake microplastic pollution: Insights from regional human development levels

Microplastics have emerged as a pervasive pollutant across various environmental media. Nevertheless, our understanding of their occurrence, sources, and drivers in global lakes still needs to be completed due to limited data. This study compiled data from 117 studies (2016–May 2024) on microplastic contamination in lake surface water and sediment, encompassing surface water samples in 351 lakes and lake sediment samples in 200 lakes across 43 countries. Using meta-analysis and statistical methods, the study reveals significant regional variability in microplastic pollution, with concentrations ranging from 0.09 to 130,000 items/m3 in surface water and from 5.41 to 18,100 items/kg in sediment. Most microplastics were under 1 mm in particle size, accounting for approximately 79 % of lake surface water and 76 % of sediment. Transparent and blue microplastics were the most common, constituting 34 % and 21 % of lake surface water and 28 % and 18 % of sediment, respectively. Fibers were the dominant shape, representing 47 % of lake surface water and 48 % of sediment. The primary identified polymer types were polyethylene (PE), polypropylene (PP), and polyethylene terephthalate (PET). Countries like India, Pakistan, and China had higher contamination levels. Positive correlations were found between microplastic abundance in surface water and factors like human footprint index (r = 0.29, p < 0.01), precipitation (r = 0.21, p < 0.05), and net surface solar radiation (r = 0.43, p < 0.001). In contrast, negative correlations were observed with the human development index (r = −0.61, p < 0.01) and wind speed (r = −0.42, p < 0.001). In sediment, microplastics abundance correlated positively with the human footprint index (r = 0.45, p < 0.001). This study underscores the variability in microplastic pollution in global lakes and the role of human activities and environmental factors, offering a valuable reference for future research.

ESG-трансформация российских регионов: теоретические аспекты

The paper considers the theoretical aspects of sustainable development and ESG transformation of Russian regions. The research substantiates a systematic approach to the balanced development of regions as socio-ecological and economic systems. The concept of sustainable development and regional ESG transformation correlates to the concept of regional economic security, economic growth, human and social capital development. In our opinion, a systematic reproductive approach is the most productive in solving many problems of regional socio-economic development. Moreover, it could consider the following issues of regional ESG transformation: a six-stage scheme of social reproduction: «science – production – distribution – exchange – consumption – utilization»; natural-economic-institutional-social reproduction chain. One of the aspects of the reproductive approach is the concept of sustainable development and the ESG agenda. However, in terms of economic theory and philosophy, four types of «transformational connections» can be distinguished: interaction, relationships, institutions, and management decisions. The regional sustainable development, the achievement of high indicators of its socio-economic development is presented as a balanced interaction of three components: economy, social sphere, and ecology. Russian scientists consider regional ESG transformation in terms of economic security, regional economic growth, and increasing its attractiveness, development of technological potential, improvement of the institutional environment, and competencies of managers at all levels in the field of sustainable development and ESG.

Global Prevalence of Overweight and Obesity in Children and Adolescents

Overweight and obesity in childhood and adolescence is a global health issue associated with adverse outcomes throughout the life course. To estimate worldwide prevalence of overweight and obesity in children and adolescents from 2000 to 2023 and to assess potential risk factors for and comorbidities of obesity. MEDLINE, Web of Science, Embase, and Cochrane. The inclusion criteria were: (1) studies provided adequate information, (2) diagnosis based on body mass index cutoffs proposed by accepted references, (3) studies performed on general population between January 2000 and March 2023, (4) participants were younger than 18 years. The current study was performed in accordance with the Meta-analysis of Observational Studies in Epidemiology guidelines. DerSimonian-Laird random-effects model with Free-Tukey double arcsine transformation was used for data analysis. Sensitivity analysis, meta-regression, and subgroup analysis of obesity among children and adolescents were conducted. Prevalence of overweight and obesity among children and adolescents assessed by World Health Organization, International Obesity Task Force, the US Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, or other national references. A total of 2033 studies from 154 different countries or regions involving 45 890 555 individuals were included. The overall prevalence of obesity in children and adolescents was 8.5% (95% CI 8.2-8.8). We found that the prevalence varied across countries, ranging from 0.4% (Vanuatu) to 28.4% (Puerto Rico). Higher prevalence of obesity among children and adolescents was reported in countries with Human Development Index scores of 0.8 or greater and high-income countries or regions. Compared to 2000 to 2011, a 1.5-fold increase in the prevalence of obesity was observed in 2012 to 2023. Substantial differences in rates of obesity were noted when stratified by 11 risk factors. Children and adolescents with obesity had a high risk of depression and hypertension. The pooled estimates of overweight and excess weight in children and adolescents were 14.8% (95% CI 14.5-15.1) and 22.2% (95% CI 21.6-22.8), respectively. This study's findings indicated 1 of 5 children or adolescents experienced excess weight and that rates of excess weight varied by regional income and Human Development Index. Excess weight among children and adolescents was associated with a mix of inherent, behavioral, environmental, and sociocultural influences that need the attention and committed intervention of primary care professionals, clinicians, health authorities, and the general public.

Analisis Pengaruh PDRB, Tingkat Pengangguran dan Indeks Pembangunan Manusia Terhadap Tingkat Kemiskinan Diprovinsi Lampung Tahun 2021-2021

This research aims to analyze the relationship between Gross Regional Domestic Product (GRDP), unemployment rate, and Human Development Index (HDI) with the poverty rate in Lampung Province during the 2021-2021 period. The data used is secondary data obtained from various official sources. Statistical analysis methods, including correlation and regression analysis, are used to test the relationship between these variables. The research results show that there is a relationship between GRDP, unemployment rate, HDI, and poverty rate in Lampung Province. The implications of these findings are discussed in the context of economic and social development policy at the regional level.

Model Based Clustering for Regency/City Grouping Based on Community Welfare Indicators in North Sumatra

This thesis aims to apply model-based clustering in grouping regencies/cities in North Sumatra based on Community Welfare Indicators to determine the number of groups (clusters) formed based on community welfare indicators in regencies/cities in North Sumatra and to understand the level of community welfare from this grouping in planning and managing community welfare in regencies/cities in North Sumatra, with the hope of achieving equal welfare in every region. The research method used is Model-Based Clustering, which uses 5 research data variables: HDI, Poor Population, Unemployment Rate, GDP, and Health. In this millennial era, the assessment of community welfare requires more attention. Rapid social, technological, and environmental changes have created new dynamics that can affect community welfare. The evaluation of community welfare is not only limited to economic parameters but also considers health, unemployment, and other factors. By using Model-Based Clustering, it is possible to determine the optimal number of groups (clusters) from various and possibly correlated variables, and the results are easier to understand, making the analysis and understanding of the results easier. Readers can learn about the level of community welfare, and the community and government can evaluate their welfare for future improvements. The research results show that among the groups of regencies/cities formed, five cities consistently show lower Gross Regional Domestic Product (GDP) and Human Development Index (HDI) than other cities. Therefore, a sustainable approach is needed to improve these cities' economic conditions and social welfare.

Penegakan Disiplin Pegawai Negeri Sipil dan di Kantor Badan Kepegawaian dan Pengembangan Sumber Daya Manusia Daerah Kabupaten Lembata

The purpose of this study was to analyze the enforcement of civil servant discipline and in the office of the staffing agency and regional human resource development of Lembata Regency. The results showed that (a) The application of disciplinary sanctions against civil servants at the Office of the Civil Service Agency and Regional Human Resources Development of Lembata Regency is applied to civil servants who do not comply with Government Regulation Number 94 of 2021 concerning Civil Servant Discipline as stated in Government Regulations article 4 and article 5 and Regent Regulation Number 86 of 2022 in article 4 and article 5 concerning guidelines for implementing the enforcement of State Civil Apparatus discipline within the Lembata Regency Government; (b) External and internal obstacles occur in Lembata Regency which greatly affect the level of discipline of civil servants so that it is necessary to increase human resources and also SOPs in the process of enforcing discipline in Lembata Regency. The author's suggestions (a) there is a need for increased discipline. The author assesses the steps and procedures taken to enforce the discipline of civil servants as government officials in Lembata Regency based on data from the Lembata Regency Regional Personnel and Human Resources Development Agency in accordance with existing regulations starting from the stage of summoning coaching and imposing disciplinary sanctions, but in enforcement it often experiences obstacles that make the enforcement process often hampered (b) The factors that cause obstacles in the implementation of civil servant discipline in Lembata Regency are, still low awareness of employees to act and be disciplined in carrying out their duties.

Factors of regional financial inclusion in Morocco

The purpose of this paper is twofold: first, provide a comparative analysis of interregional and intraregional inequalities in terms of financial inclusion across Moroccan regions; second, explore the determinants of regional financial inclusion in a panel of 12 Moroccan regions. We used the principal component analysis methodology to construct our regional financial inclusion indexes, and the panel data estimation methodology to identify the determinants of regional financial inclusion. Our regional financial inclusion index shows that the majority of regions have a low level of financial inclusion. This is symptomatic of a very asymmetric distribution. For all regions, we found that intraregional inequalities in access to bank branches by locality/province or prefecture increase as we move away from the region’s main city. Empirical results indicated that a region’s human development level, as proxied by the Human Development Index (HDI), the size of its population, and the industrialization level of its economic fabric are the main determinants of a region’s financial inclusion level. The Moroccan financial system authorities have implemented several reforms (the banking law no. 2‐91‐967 of July 21, 1993) and strategies (National Financial Inclusion Strategy) aimed at promoting financial inclusion in Morocco; however, the increase in the level of financial inclusion at the macrolevel has not benefited all segments of the Moroccan population. This paper is original as, to our knowledge, it is the first to mobilize interregional and intraregional data, as opposed to previous studies that are national‐level oriented. Given the mapping of interregional and intraregional inequalities in access to, and use of, formal financial services, policymakers can rely on our index to formulate useful financial inclusion policies and to target rural localities, provinces or prefectures, and priority regions in Morocco’s National Financial Inclusion Strategy. The financial system should provide financial services tailored to regional financing needs. Moroccan policymakers should focus on filling gaps in levels of regional human development, as the latter is a key factor in regional financial inclusion.

PENGARUH DANA DESA, PRODUK DOMESTIK REGIONAL BRUTO DAN INDEKS PEMBANGUNAN MANUSIA TERHADAP KEMISKINAN DI 23 KABUPATEN/KOTA PROVINSI ACEH

The purpose of this research is to determine the influence of village funds, gross regional domestic product and human development index on poverty in 23 regencies/cities of Aceh Province. Using a panel data approach from 2016 to 2022 in 23 Regencies/Cities of Aceh province. From testing the selected panel model, namely the Random Effect Model (REM), the research results show that village funds partially have a positive and significant effect on the number of poor people in 23 regencies/cities of Aceh Province, the GRDP variable has a significant positive effect on the number of poor people in 23 regencies/cities. Aceh Province, and the HDI variable has a significant negative effect on the number of poor people in 23 districts/cities in Aceh province. Simultaneous test results state that simultaneously the variables village funds, GRDP, and HDI influence the number of poor people in 23 districts/cities in Aceh province.

МОНІТОРИНГ ЛЮДСЬКОГО РОЗВИТКУ В РЕГІОНІ: ПОТОЧНА ТА СТРАТЕГІЧНА КОМПОНЕНТИ

One of the key factors in building regional competitiveness in modern conditions is human development. The purpose of the article is the study of modern classic methods of current and strategic monitoring and their extrapolation to the field of human development in the terms of the regional economy. In the process of research, methods of abstraction were applied when outlining the main indicators characterizing the current or strategic state of the human potential of the region; methods of strategic analysis, comparison techniques and others. The article reveals the problem of assessing human development as a factor in the formation of regional competitiveness on the basis of monitoring, which is proposed to be carried out in two directions: both current and strategic. The current monitoring is aimed at researching the state of development of the region and its human potential in a retrospective plan. This type of monitoring contributes to the identification of emerging trends and their assessment. Strategic monitoring is based on strategic analysis methods, among which the SPACE-analysis adapted to the field of human development deserves attention. To conduct strategic research, it is recommended to use the method of expert assessments, and to do this, invite highly qualified specialists in the field of regional competitiveness and human development. Based on the results of the SPACE-analysis, one of the strategies of human development is diagnosed: aggressive, competitive, conservative or defensive. Monitoring of strategic positioning allows not only to assess the strategic position of human development, but also to identify which indicators determine its position. The strategy is determined on the coordinate scale, where four vectors are highlighted. Two of them characterize the human potential of the region (the financial strength of human potential and its competitive advantages), and the other two - its external environment, which includes the stability of the regional economy and the attractiveness of the region. The practical significance of the proposed methodology is to provide regional management with objective information for making management decisions.

REGIONAL ASPECTS OF INCREASING THE COMPETITIVENESS OF FOOD INDUSTRY PRODUCTS IN AZERBAIJAN

The purpose of the research is to comprehensively analyze and assess the current state of the Azerbaijani food industry, with a focus on identifying factors influencing its competitiveness. The methodology of the research - this research involves a multi-faceted approach combining quantitative and qualitative methods. The practical importance of the research – the research holds considerable applied significance for various stakeholders, including policymakers, industry practitioners, investors, and educational institutions. The results of the research - the reesarch reveals a nuanced understanding of the Azerbaijani food industry, highlighting its strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and threats. The originality and scientific novelty of the research – it contributes to the body of knowledge by offering a comprehensive analysis specific to the Azerbaijani food industry. It brings together various facets, including regional dynamics, government policies, techno­logical integration, and human capital development, providing a holistic view. The scientific novelty of this research lies in its integrative approach. By combining quantitative and qualitative methods, it presents a nuanced and thorough understanding of the industry.

Spatialized PM2.5 during COVID-19 pandemic in Brazil's most populous southern city: implications for post-pandemic era.

Brazil has experienced one of the highest COVID-19 fatality rates globally. While numerous studies have explored the potential connection between air pollution, specifically fine particulate matter (PM2.5), and the exacerbation of SARS-CoV-2 infection, the majority of this research has been conducted in foreign regions-Europe, the United States, and China-correlating generalized pollution levels with health-related scopes. In this study, our objective is to investigate the localized connection between exposure to air pollution exposure and its health implications within a specific Brazilian municipality, focusing on COVID-19 susceptibility. Our investigation involves assessing pollution levels through spatial interpolation of in situ PM2.5 measurements. A network of affordable sensors collected data across 9 regions in Curitiba, as well as its metropolitan counterpart, Araucaria. Our findings distinctly reveal a significant positive correlation (with r-values reaching up to 0.36, p-value < 0.01) between regions characterized by higher levels of pollution, particularly during the winter months (with r-values peaking at 0.40, p-value < 0.05), with both COVID-19 mortality and incidence rates. This correlation gains added significance due to the intricate interplay between urban atmospheric pollution and regional human development indices. Notably, heightened pollution aligns with industrial hubs and intensified vehicular activity. The spatial analysis performed in this study assumes a pivotal role by identifying priority regions that require targeted action post-COVID. By comprehending the localized dynamics between air pollution and its health repercussions, tailored strategies can be implemented to alleviate these effects and ensure the well-being of the public.

Regional temperature extremes and vulnerability under net zero CO2 emissions

Signatories to the Paris Agreement have pledged to keep global warming to well below 2 °C above pre-industrial levels and preferably below 1.5 °C above pre-industrial levels. Beyond over-shooting Paris Agreement warming levels followed by net negative emissions, achieving a state of net zero carbon dioxide emissions is required to satisfy Paris Agreement warming goals. Research on climate changes under net zero CO2 emissions is very limited to date with no comprehensive analysis of changes in extremes. In this study, we use results from Earth System Models in the zero emissions commitment model intercomparison project to understand regional mean-state climate change patterns during a 100 year period following carbon dioxide emissions cessation. We also perform an initial study of the evolution of hot and cold monthly temperature extremes after net zero CO2 emissions, including an assessment of how the change in frequency of temperature extremes affects areas of different levels of socioeconomic development based on regional Human Development Index (HDI). The results show that most land regions experience a fast and continuous cooling response following emissions cessation, with large areas of significant model agreement. In contrast, the Southern Ocean continues warming over the century after emissions cessation. The frequency of land-based local monthly high temperature extremes generally stays constant or decreases during the century after emissions cessation, however, decreases in heat extreme frequencies are generally less for locations with lower modern HDI than areas with higher HDI which suggests that inequality of climate change will remain an issue even after net zero CO2 emissions. There is an evident emergence of local monthly cold extremes following emissions cessation with most significant impact over high HDI mid- and high-latitude land regions.

Analisis Pengaruh Rasio Kemandirian Keuangan Daerah dan Pertumbuhan Ekonomi Terhadap Indeks Pembangunan Manusia Di Kabupaten Tanah Bumbu, Kotabaru dan Tanah Laut Periode (2010-2020)

The purpose of this study is to analyze how the Regional Financial Independence Ratio, Economic Growth, and Human Development index of Tanah Bumbu, Kotabaru, and Tanah Laut have an effect on the Tanah Bumbu, Kotabaru, and Tanah Laut and analyze how the Economic Growth affects the Human Development Index in of Tanah Bumbu, Kotabaru, and Tanah Laut. This study uses regional financial independence, linear panel data regression, classical assumption test, and hypothesis testing. The results of this study indicate that the ratio of regional financial independence partially has a significant adverse effect on the Human Development Index (HDI); the test results show that the probability count is 0.0549&gt;0.05. Meanwhile, economic growth partially has a significant positive effect on the human development index (HDI). The test results show that the probability value of count is 0.0033&lt;0.05.

Analysis of spatial differences in global regional human development index under planetary pressure and decomposition study of driving factors

To urge nations worldwide to implement robust measures for enhancing human development and mitigating the pressures exerted on the planet by human activities in pursuit of sustainable development, this study encompasses 154 countries globally, using the seven major regions as focal points. Leveraging the Planetary Pressure Adjusted Human Development Index (PHDI) proposed by the United Nations Development Programme on December 15, 2020, as a metric for human development levels, this paper aims to standardize and internationally compare human development data from 1990 to 2021. Subsequently, employing the Theil index, the study assesses the global human development status across the seven regions to analyze spatial disparities in PHDI. Lastly, a comprehensive Generalized Diese Index Method (GDIM) is constructed to accurately reflect absolute and latent factors, dissecting the driving forces impacting global PHDI. The study explores critical pathways for high-quality human development within the harmonious coexistence between humanity and nature. It validates the robustness of GDIM results through a stepwise regression. Research findings indicate varying levels of PHDI development across regions, with a distinct spatial hierarchy evolving: higher human development levels in Europe and Eastern Europe, favorable levels in North and South America, similar levels in Oceania and Asia, and significant improvement potential in Africa. As globalization progresses, overall differences in PHDI gradually decrease; however, disparities persist between and within regions. Economic, technological, and per capita welfare effects consistently positively drive PHDI. In contrast, environmental pressure effects, social effects, per capita value-added effects, and output carbon intensity effects consistently exert hostile driving forces. Population size effects on PHDI show a fluctuating trend. Moreover, in terms of cumulative contribution values, the top three contributors to driving forces are economic, technological, and per capita welfare effects.

The Influence of Expenditure Capital Level, Regional Dependence Level and Independence Level on Growth of The Regional Human Development Index

The goal of this study is to determine the relationship between the human development index and the quantity of regional capital investment, the degree of regional dependence, and the degree of regional financial independence. The Human Development Index (HDI) is the dependent variable, whereas the degree of regional financial independence, the degree of regional financial interdependence, and the degree of capital spending are independent factors. The panel data analysis in this study makes use of the fixed effect model (FEM) methodology. The results show that the degree of regional financial dependence, degree of regional financial independence, and degree of capital investment all considerably and favorably influence the Human Development Index (HDI). It partially depicts how the degrees of regional financial dependence, financial independence, and capital spending have a significant and beneficial impact on the Human Development Index (HDI).

Role of Education in relation with the Gross Domestic Product, Human Development Index and Poverty Rate in East Java

This research was purposed to know the role of education and to analyze the relationships of Gross Regional Domestic Product (GRDP) and Human Development Index (HDI) on poverty rate in East Java Province. The used research method was quantitative research. This research used secondary data obtained from the Central Bureau of Statistics of East Java. The data were analyzed by using panel data regression analysis with Fixed Effect Model (FEM) estimation and the aid of EViews 9.0 application program. The research result showed that PDRB and HDI variables affected simultaneously poverty rate in East Java Province from 2010 to 2016 that was 97.8506%. GRDP variable affected partially poverty rate that was -0.251899, and HDI variable affected partially as well poverty rate that was -1.868236. To support the increment of human development index (HDI), it is necessary to enhance the role of education. It is generally accepted that a person's HDI income level will improve as their degree of education increases. This is achievable due to the fact that educated people tend to be more productive overall.

Rapid retreat of the East Asian summer monsoon on the western Chinese loess Plateau during the middle to late Holocene and its environmental and societal implications

Spatiotemporal changes in the Holocene climate of the arid region of China were principally caused by shifts in the intensity and location of the East Asian summer monsoon (EASM). However, our knowledge of these EASM variations is limited, especially since the middle Holocene. We investigated two aeolian sedimentary sections (the Linxia/LX and Gulang/GL sections) on the western Chinese Loess Plateau (CLP), to explore the variations in the intensity and location of the EASM and their impact on the regional environment and human cultural development during the middle to late Holocene. The longitudes of these two loess sections are similar, but the GL section is located on the northern edge of the CLP, in the eastern Hexi Corridor, and it is situated further north than the LX section. The chronologies of both sections are based on accelerator mass spectrometry 14C dating, and environmental magnetic parameters and grain size end-members were used to reconstruct their moisture histories. The results suggest that the climate at the LX section was relatively dry before 3.5 ka, after which it became wetter. In contrast, at the GL section, the climate was also relatively dry before 3.5 ka, with the wettest conditions occurring during 3.5–2 ka, but subsequently there was an abrupt shift to a dry climate. We suggest that these spatiotemporal patterns reflect the westward movement and rapid southward retreat of the EASM and the linked monsoon rainfall belt. TraCE-21 ka climate simulation results support our inference. We also found that, compared with other ancient cultures in the eastern Hexi Corrido, sites of the Shajing culture, dated to ∼2.4–2.8 ka, are predominantly located in areas that are arid at the present-day, and relatively distant from rivers. We suggest that this distribution pattern reflected the occurrence of a humid climate during the period of the Shajing culture, thus demonstrating the impact of the EASM on cultural development in this region.

Analysis of the Effect of Gross Regional Domestic Product and Human Development Index on Poverty in North Sumatra 2013 – 2022

This study The aim of this study was to determine the effect of the Gross Regional Domestic Product and the Human Development Index on Poverty in North Sumatra in 2013-2022. The data used in this study is quantitative data sourced from secondary data obtained from the official website of the Central Government. Central Bureau of Statistics of North Sumatra. The method used in this study is multiple linear regression analysis with the help of e-views 10 software. The results show that GRDP has a negative and insignificant effect on Poverty in North Sumatra in 2013 - 2022, while HDI has a positive and insignificant effect on Poverty in Sumatra North in 2013 - 2022.