Regional Differences Research Articles

The disparities of PrEP adherence among men who have sex with men between the Global South and the Global North: An updated determinantal global meta-analysis.

Suboptimal adherence to PrEP limits its global impact, with current evidence mostly from the Global North and lacking Global South perspectives. This meta-analysis synthesises the rates and determinants of suboptimal adherence to oral PrEP among MSM in both regions. We searched for literature describing PrEP adherence and its determinants among MSM globally up until October 2024 to conduct a meta-analysis on the rate and determinants of suboptimal adherence in both regions. The definition of (sub-)optimal adherence were study-based. We included 82 studies in the meta-analysis, with 24, 53, and 5 stemmed from the Global South, North, and global multicentre studies, respectively. Oral PrEP suboptimal adherence is prevalent among MSM PrEP-users globally (rate=0.33, 95%CI:0.28-0.38) with a significantly higher rate (p=0.021) in the Global South (rate=0.41, 95%CI:0.33-0.50) compared to the Global North (rate=0.29, 95%CI:0.23-0.35). In the Global South, older age (OR=0.57, 95%CI:0.37-0.87), alcohol use (OR=1.28, 95%CI:1.02-1.60) and presenting depressive symptoms (OR=1.47, 95%CI:1.01-2.16) were associated with suboptimal adherence. In the Global North, MSM self-identified as Black (OR=2.27, 95%CI:1.31-3.95) or Other (OR=1.36, 95%CI:1.02-1.81), having a university degree (OR=0.50, 95%CI:0.34-0.73), and presenting depressive symptoms (OR=2.26, 95%CI:1.35-3.78) were associated with suboptimal adherence. On-demand PrEP-users globally demonstrated a higher likelihood of suboptimal adherence (OR=1.59, 95%CI:1.18-2.14). Suboptimal adherence to oral PrEP is prevalent among MSM globally, particularly higher in the Global South. Regional differences in determinants highlight the need for tailored interventions. Tailored interventions are required to address mental health with tailored efforts to younger MSM in the Global South, while interventions in the Global North should be tailored to specific sub-groups.

Whole-body networks: a holistic approach for studying aging.

Aging is a multi-organ disease, yet the traditional approach has been to study each organ in isolation. Such organ-specific studies have provided invaluable information regarding its pathomechanisms. However, an overall picture of the whole-body network (WBN) during aging is still incomplete. In this study, we analyzed the functional magnetic resonance imaging blood-oxygen level-dependent, respiratory rate and heart rate time series of a young and an elderly group during eyes-open resting-state. We constructed WBNs by exploring the time-lagged coupling between the different organs. First, we showed that our analytical pipeline could identify regional differences in the networks of both cohorts, allowing us to proceed with the remaining analyses. The comparison of the WBNs revealed a complex relationship where some connections were stronger and some weaker in the elderly. Finally, the interconnectivity and segregation of the WBNs were negatively correlated with the short-term memory and verbal learning of the young participants. This study: i) validated our methodology, ii) identified differences in the WBNs of the two groups and iii) showed correlations of WBNs with behavioral measures. In conclusion, the concept of WBN shows great potential for the understanding of aging and age-related diseases.

Economic impact associated with dronedarone use in patients with atrial fibrillation

Objective/Aim In 2009, dronedarone was approved by the United States Food and Drug Administration based on results from the ATHENA trial (NCT00174785), which showed significant reduction of cardiovascular (CV) hospitalization and death in patients with atrial fibrillation (AF) randomized to dronedarone versus placebo. In 2020, a retrospective study by Goehring et al. showed CV hospitalizations and deaths were lower in clinical practice following initiation of dronedarone compared to other antiarrhythmic drugs (AADs) in patients with AF and atrial flutter. However, the economic impact associated with dronedarone use has not been fully assessed. The objective of this study was to estimate the cost associated with CV outcomes reported by Goehring et al. (2020). Methods National average Medicare payments in the Centers for Medicare and Medicaid Services (CMS) database (www.data.CMS.gov) were used to assign cost estimates to CV outcomes evaluated in Goehring et al. (2020) by diagnosis-related grouping. When costs were unavailable in the CMS database, a literature search was performed to identify publications reporting hospitalization costs. Results The weighted average cost for CV hospitalization was calculated to be $20,508. When multiplied by the event rate reported in Goehring et al. (2020), cost per person year for CV hospitalization was 14% lower with dronedarone versus other AADs ($3,679 vs $4,272, respectively). For hospitalizations due to heart failure, cost was 31% lower with dronedarone compared with other AADs ($324 vs $472, respectively). Limitations Costs have been calculated based on national averages reported by CMS (Medicare perspective) and are estimates. Regional differences may be present. Conclusions Patients with AF taking dronedarone had lower costs associated with CV hospitalization compared with patients taking other AADs.

Post-spawning migration and habitat use of adult Pacific bluefin tuna (Thunnus orientalis) in the western North Pacific

Pacific bluefin tuna (PBF, Thunnus orientalis), migrate widely throughout the north Pacific Ocean during all life stages. However, studies on the migration of adult fish in the northwestern Pacific Ocean, where spawning occurs, are limited. This study investigated the post-spawning migration and habitat use of PBF from the major spawning grounds of the Nansei Islands (approximately 23–31° N), Japan, using pop-up satellite archival transmission (PAT) tags. The PAT tags were deployed on 15 PBF individuals (estimated fork lengths: 170–260 cm) in the late spawning season (May–June) of 2021, and tracking data were collected for 3–103 days. Four tagged PBF individuals moved > 2,500 km north to the Kuroshio-Oyashio transition region at high latitudes (40° N) in July–September, immediately after the spawning season. During this northward movement, these PBF showed a spatiotemporal change in their vertical behavior, adapting to regional thermal habitat differences. At low latitudes near the spawning grounds (23.6–29.6° N), the PBF dived to deep depths (mean: 162.8 m) to avoid the warm surface layer (mean: 28.6 °C); however, once they reached higher latitudes (36.6–44.9° N), they spent most of their time in the cool surface layer (mean: 18.5 °C; 22.3 m). Our findings suggest that adult PBF move from spawning grounds to physiologically suitable low-temperature, food-rich waters through long-distance movements, and then exhibit a habitat preference behavior characterized by repeated short-distance movements in response to the feeding environments at high latitudes.

Age heaping based numeracy estimates in African regions, 1950–1999: New methodological advances and results

ABSTRACT During the post-colonial period, enrolment and years of schooling have increased substantially in Sub-Saharan Africa. However, this has been accompanied by a decline in the overall quality of education. As a result, it is important to focus on indicators such as numeracy and literacy, capturing the quality of education, rather than the input of schooling alone, to better understand educational attainment. Moreover, these skills have been associated, for example, to higher productivity and health. Numeracy, in particular, has been linked to sustained development. Therefore, measuring and understanding its development is a crucial first step to improve educational quality. Combining data from censuses and household surveys, we estimate numeracy at the subnational level for Sub-Saharan Africa employing the ABCC Index. Additionally, we carefully evaluate the suitability of the index and our data to capture basic numeracy – deeming it to be robust. We find mostly stagnating numeracy for the birth cohorts between 1950 and 1990, although some countries increased (for example, Ghana) and others declined. Moreover, we observe strong regional differences, with Southern Africa performing best and Western Africa worst.

Measurement and spatiotemporal evolution characteristics of dietary diversity among Chinese residents

PurposeThe purpose of this paper is to measure the dietary diversity and to analyze the regional characteristics, differences, and evolutionary trends of dietary diversity among Chinese residents.MethodsIn this paper, the dietary diversity among Chinese residents was measured using the Shannon index based on the provincial-level food consumption data from 1995 to 2021. On this basis, the paper employs analysis methods such as kernel density estimation, spatial correlation test, and Dagum’s Gini coefficient to analyze the regional characteristics, differences, and trends of change in dietary diversity.ResultsDuring the study period, the dietary diversity among Chinese residents showed an increasing trend. Among the four major geographic regions, the dietary diversity was highest in the southern region, followed by the northern region, northwest region, and Qinghai-Tibet region. Among the three major economic regions, the dietary diversity was highest in the eastern region, followed by the central region and western region. There was a significant positive spatial correlation in the dietary diversity among Chinese residents, and both high-high agglomeration and low-low agglomeration phenomena were strengthened. In terms of the trend of regional differences, whether overall differences, interregional differences, or intraregional differences, they all showed a shrinking trend. However, interregional differences were the main source of overall differences in dietary diversity among Chinese residents.ConclusionThe dietary diversity among Chinese residents shows an overall increasing trend, and there are regional differences in dietary diversity from the perspectives of economic and geographic regions, which have been narrowing over time.

Cohort profile: the provincial opioid agonist treatment cohort in Ontario, Canada.

Opioid Agonist Treatment (OAT) is the most effective intervention for opioid use disorder (OUD), but retention has decreased due to increasingly potent drugs like fentanyl. This cohort can be used retrospectively to observe trends in service utilization, healthcare integration, healthcare costs and patient outcomes. It also facilitates the design of observational studies to mimic a prospective design. This study used linked administrative data from ICES to create a cohort of 137,035 individuals who received at least one prescription of methadone or buprenorphine/naloxone between 2014 and 2022. Data were linked using de-identified personal health numbers. Variables included age, sex, rurality, income, homelessness, and mental health conditions. Regional differences in OAT use, retention, and mortality were analyzed. Of the cohort, 56.1% began OAT after 2014. Southern Ontario participants more often started on methadone (53.2%), while Northern Ontario patients favored buprenorphine/naloxone (62.7%). Northern patients were younger, more likely to be female, live in rural areas, and face homelessness. The death rate was higher in Southern Ontario (22.1%) than in Northern Ontario (13.2%). Retention declined over time, with 73.4% of patients remaining in treatment at the study's end. The findings highlight regional disparities in OAT delivery and emphasize the need for region-specific strategies, particularly in rural areas, to improve retention and reduce mortality.

Research on the Contribution of Higher Education to the Sustainable Development of the Economy in China: An Empirical Analysis Based on Provincial Panel Data from 2014 to 2023

In a time of rapid economic development, sustainable development is increasingly becoming the primary concern of governments. Taking the human capital accumulation and spillover model as an analytical tool, we use interprovincial panel data for 2014–2023 to estimate the degree of contribution of higher education to the sustainable development of the economy. Instrumental variables are introduced to alleviate the problem of endogeneity. An urbanization index is also introduced, as well as an interaction term formed by the marketization index and the independent variable to explore the extent of the contribution of higher education to the sustainable development of the regional economy. There are regional differences in the contribution of higher education to sustainable economic development. The study shows that higher education has a significant positive effect on regional economic sustainability. The higher the level of urbanization and the higher the level of marketization, the more significant the positive effect of higher education on economic sustainability. We should continuously increase investment in higher education, optimize the structure and layout of higher education, promote the synergistic development of higher education and urbanization, and deepen the interaction between higher education and market-oriented reform in order to actively promote higher education to serve the sustainable development of regional economies.

Vulnerability to natural disasters and sustainable consumption: Unraveling political and regional differences

The urgent calls for action on climate change underscore the importance of increasing sustainable behavior among individuals who have traditionally veered away from it, such as those on the political right. Utilizing data from four geopolitical regions across 24 countries, we explore whether vulnerability to natural disasters, brought on by either experiencing or anticipating a natural disaster, is a crucial factor. We find that as vulnerability to natural disasters increases, sustainable consumption intentions significantly increase among rightists in Western Europe, Israel, and the United States. Environmental motives, rather than economic or trend motives, are found to drive this effect. This suggests that, for rightists, the expectation of being directly impacted by climate change can override their established attitudes and foster more sustainable behavior with the goal of helping the environment. In contrast, the same increase in sustainable consumption intentions is weaker among leftists, who already embrace sustainable behavior. Interestingly, in Central and Eastern Europe, this interplay between political ideology and vulnerability to natural disasters is absent, highlighting the unique postcommunist context of this region. These findings underscore the necessity of tailored strategies for promoting sustainable behavior across regional contexts and provide vital insight into how sustainable consumption may increase among groups that have traditionally resisted it. In a quasiexperiment, we test the potential of an intervention using messages that highlight recent natural disasters in one's locality and demonstrate its effectiveness in pushing rightists toward sustainable consumption.

Cross-Cultural Sense-Making of Global Health Crises: A Text Mining Study of Public Opinions on Social Media Related to the COVID-19 Pandemic in Developed and Developing Economies.

The COVID-19 pandemic reshaped social dynamics, fostering reliance on social media for information, connection, and collective sense-making. Understanding how citizens navigate a global health crisis in varying cultural and economic contexts is crucial for effective crisis communication. This study examines the evolution of citizen collective sense-making during the COVID-19 pandemic by analyzing social media discourse across Italy, the United Kingdom, and Egypt, representing diverse economic and cultural contexts. A total of 755,215 social media posts from X (formerly Twitter) were collected across 3 time periods: the virus' emergence (February 15 to March 31, 2020), strict lockdown (April 1 to May 30, 2020), and the vaccine rollout (December 1, 2020 to January 15, 2021). In total, 284,512 posts from Italy, 261,978 posts from the United Kingdom, and 209,725 posts from Egypt were analyzed using the latent Dirichlet allocation algorithm to identify key thematic topics and track shifts in discourse across time and regions. The analysis revealed significant regional and temporal differences in collective sense-making during the pandemic. In Italy and the United Kingdom, public discourse prominently addressed pragmatic health care measures and government interventions, reflecting higher institutional trust. By contrast, discussions in Egypt were more focused on religious and political themes, highlighting skepticism toward governmental capacity and reliance on alternative frameworks for understanding the crisis. Over time, all 3 countries displayed a shift in discourse toward vaccine-related topics during the later phase of the pandemic, highlighting its global significance. Misinformation emerged as a recurrent theme across regions, demonstrating the need for proactive measures to ensure accurate information dissemination. These findings emphasize the role of cultural, economic, and institutional factors in shaping public responses during health crises. Crisis communication is influenced by cultural, economic, and institutional contexts, as evidenced by regional variations in citizen engagement. Transparent and culturally adaptive communication strategies are essential to combat misinformation and build public trust. This study highlights the importance of tailoring crisis responses to local contexts to improve compliance and collective resilience.

Estimating future heat-related and cold-related mortality under climate change, demographic and adaptation scenarios in 854 European cities.

Previous health impact assessments of temperature-related mortality in Europe indicated that the mortality burden attributable to cold is much larger than for heat. Questions remain as to whether climate change can result in a net decrease in temperature-related mortality. In this study, we estimated how climate change could affect future heat-related and cold-related mortality in 854 European urban areas, under several climate, demographic and adaptation scenarios. We showed that, with no adaptation to heat, the increase in heat-related deaths consistently exceeds any decrease in cold-related deaths across all considered scenarios in Europe. Under the lowest mitigation and adaptation scenario (SSP3-7.0), we estimate a net death burden due to climate change increasing by 49.9% and cumulating 2,345,410 (95% confidence interval = 327,603 to 4,775,853) climate change-related deaths between 2015 and 2099. This net effect would remain positive even under high adaptation scenarios, whereby a risk attenuation of 50% is still insufficient to reverse the trend under SSP3-7.0. Regional differences suggest a slight net decrease of death rates in Northern European countries but high vulnerability of the Mediterranean region and Eastern Europe areas. Unless strong mitigation and adaptation measures are implemented, most European cities should experience an increase of their temperature-related mortality burden.

Non-Negligible Factors Influence Tree-Ring-Based Temperature Reconstruction and Comparison over Mid-Latitude China

Warm-season mean maximum temperature changes over mid-latitude regions have been attracting increasing attention amid the background of global warming. In this study, we present three tree-ring width chronologies: Tongbai Mountain (TBM; 1916–2014), Shimen Mountain (SMM; 1663–2014), and Xinlong (XL; 1541–2014), derived respectively from the eastern Qinling Mountains, north–central China, and the eastern Tibetan Plateau. Therein, TBM and SMM are newly developed, while XL is a reanalysis. Correlation analysis with climatic factors reveals that these three chronologies exhibit the highest correlation with the May–July mean maximum temperature. Based on these chronologies, we conducted reconstructions of the May–July mean maximum temperature. Spatial correlation analysis of each reconstruction with concurrent observed data, as well as comparisons with nearby temperature reconstructions, indicates their large-scale representativeness. However, during the common period of 1916–2014, the three chronologies show weak correlations with each other at the interannual timescale. Furthermore, the 11-year running correlation coefficients among the three reconstructions fluctuated during this common period. Additionally, fluctuations were observed between the reconstructions from SMM and XL during the overlapping period of 1668–2009, suggesting that tree-ring-based temperature reconstructions may be inconsistent when compared over mid-latitude China. These inconsistent changes can be attributed to the regional differences in the May–July mean maximum temperature change, the influence of different precipitation signals on the maximum temperature, and the El Niño–Southern Oscillations.

Spatial heterogeneity in myelin sheathing impacts signaling reliability and susceptibility to injury.

Axons in the mammalian brain show significant diversity in myelination motifs, displaying spatial heterogeneity in sheathing along individual axons and across brain regions. However, its impact on neural signaling and susceptibility to injury remains poorly understood. To address this, we leveraged cable theory and developed model axons replicating the myelin sheath distributions observed experimentally in different regions of the mouse central nervous system. We examined how the spatial arrangement of myelin affects propagation and predisposition to conduction failure in axons with cortical versus callosal myelination motifs. Our results indicate that regional differences inmyelination significantly influence conduction timing and signaling reliability. Sensitivity of action potential propagation to the specific positioning, lengths, and ordering of myelinated and exposed segments reveals non-linear and path-dependent conduction. Furthermore, myelination motifs impact signaling vulnerability to demyelination, with callosal motifs being particularly sensitive to myelin changes. These findings highlight the crucial role of myelinating glia in brain function and disease.Significance Statement This study highlights the importance of spatial heterogeneity of myelin sheathing in shaping nerve axonal conduction. Using model axons that faithfully replicate myelin distributions observed in the mouse central nervous system, our results revealed the impact of myelin patterns on the timing and reliability of neural signaling. Contrary to the conventional view in which uniform and equally spaced myelin segments imply linear conduction, our findings show that axonal conduction is a path-dependent, non-linear process influenced by the specific distribution of myelinated and unmyelinated segments. Membrane potential propagation along model axons in the corpus callosum was found to be more vulnerable to myelin changes compared to those in the cortex, especially post-myelin injury, emphasizing the role of sheath locations in both health and disease.

The Impact of Public Employment Services Efficiency on the Urban Rural Income Gap and Its Spatial Spillover Effect

Urban rural integration is an indispensable prerequisite for achieving the objective of regional sustainable development, and exploring the impact of public employment services (PES) efficiency on the urban rural income gap(URIG) and its spatial spillover effect is of great significance for promoting integration in the new era. This study uses provincial panel data from 2011 to 2022 to explore in depth the impact of PES efficiency on the URIG and its spatial spillover effects by measuring and analyzing PES efficiency and its regional differences and dynamic evolution. It is found that the improvement of PES efficiency can significantly reduce the URIG, and the impact of PES efficiency on the URIG has spatial spillover effects. Therefore, in the future, the system of PES should be improved, the bias of PES should be reversed and the model of PES should be innovated in order to reduce the URIG.

Central American panethnic identities and the politics of solidarity in Los Angeles

Abstract Pan-ethnic groups are political-cultural collectivities made up of groups from different national origins, but which are nevertheless perceived as homogeneous. The pan-ethnic label Central American is often used to identify peoples from the isthmus despite their deep ethnic, racial, linguistic, regional, national, and cultural differences. This article examines the social construction of pan-ethnicity among Central Americans as they campaign for Little Central America, a renaming project in the heart of Los Angeles. I draw on twenty-one interviews with longtime community leaders, and participant observation with prominent Central American coalitions, to examine how they construct pan-ethnic group boundaries while negotiating group differences. Despite their vast differences, leaders draw on histories of resistance and political struggle, transnationalism, and shared experiences of invisibility and marginalization within dominant constructions of US Latinidad to call for pan-ethnic unity, while negotiating differences in gender and political ideologies, as well as racial differences. By examining these negotiations within the context of the Little Central America campaign, I show how community leaders manage the construction of group boundaries to mobilize claims for representation.

Morphometric Characterization of Apis mellifera (Italian Honey Bee) Across Different Agroclimatic Zones of Kumaun Region of Uttarakhand, India

This study investigated the morphometry of Apis mellifera across three diverse locations in Uttarakhand, spanning the Tarai irrigated (Pantnagar), Bhabar Irrigated (Nainital) and High hills (Almora), to explore regional adaptations and environmental influences. Significant regional differences were observed, with populations from high hills exhibiting larger dimensions, whereas populations from Tarai irrigated showed smaller size. The morphological characteristics of Apis mellifera worker bees were analyzed. A total of 13 morphological characters were measured using a stereo zoom microscope in combination with VUE software. The results suggest that morphometric variations can potentially distinguish intraspecific groups of honeybee colonies, identifying them as distinct ecotypes. Morphometric analysis of wings and body partsprovides valuable insights into honeybee biodiversity studies To facilitate species identification based on morphometric traits, Apis mellifera samples were collected. 40 worker bee samples were analyzed, and 13 morphometric characteristics were measured in the entomology laboratory at G.B. Pant University of Agriculture and Technology (GBPUA&T). The biometric data were analyzed by calculating the mean, range, standard error, and coefficient of variation.

Mental Health-Related Work Disabilities During the COVID-19 Lockdown in Spain: A Retrospective Analysis

Background: The COVID-19 lockdown posed unprecedented psychological challenges worldwide. In Spain, Mutual Collaborators with Social Security manage work-related disabilities, including mental health cases. Objectives: To describe and analyze work-related disabilities with mental health diagnoses during the COVID-19 lockdown in Spain from the perspective of a Mutual Collaborator with Social Security in the Spanish healthcare system. Methods: Descriptive, retrospective, and cross-sectional study of a sample of 5135 patients. Descriptive statistics reported mean values and standard deviation by sex and age. Inferential analyses were conducted using the Mann–Whitney U-test and correlation analysis. Results: The study population included 5135 patients managed by a Mutual Collaborator with Social Security during the COVID-19 lockdown, 63.5% of whom were women. Cantabria reported the highest average sick leave duration (62.80 days), while La Rioja had the lowest (39.19 days). Generalized anxiety disorder was the most prevalent diagnosis (69.17%), followed by adaptive disorders and mild depression. Women had a slightly higher prevalence of anxiety, while men showed higher rates of adaptive disorders. Conclusions: The findings underscore the psychological impact of the COVID-19 lockdown, revealing significant sex and regional differences in mental health diagnoses and sick leave duration. Generalized anxiety disorder was the predominant diagnosis, highlighting the need for targeted mental health interventions during crises.

Residential areas, travel burdens, and children with cancer: Analysis of mobility and mortality ratios using data from Japan's national population-based cancer registry

Objectives Although childhood cancer treatment has recently become centralized at specialized hospitals worldwide, the relationship between mortality ratios and living in rural areas or traveling long distances for treatment remains controversial. In the present study, we examined whether regional differences in patient mobility and mortality ratios exist in Japan.Methods We investigated 10,713 patients with cancer aged ≤18 years, diagnosed between 2016 and 2019, registered in the national cancer registry data. The patients were divided into two categories based on their residence at diagnosis: urban and rural. Urban areas were defined as metropolitan or urban areas according to the 2015 census or as prefectural cities; all other areas were defined as rural. Additionally, we divided the patients into two groups based on the one-way travel time to the treatment hospital (≤1 h or >1 h), as estimated from location information at the community level using route-planner web services. Next, we calculated the percentage of patients who received treatment within their residences in both areas and for each treatment type. We compared the percentage of distant metastasis in all cancers and each diagnosis group between the two areas using the chi-square test. We finally applied Cox proportional hazard models to obtain adjusted mortality hazard ratios for urban versus rural areas and travel times of ≤1 h versus >1 h.Results Overall, 77% of the patients were classified as urban residents. The percentages of patients receiving treatment within their residency, secondary medical care area, prefecture, and regional block levels were 22-46%, 80-87%, and 95-99%, respectively. Only central nervous system tumors (III) showed a significant difference in the percentage of distant metastases, which were more common in urban areas (6% vs. 3%). The adjusted mortality hazard ratios were not significantly different between urban and rural areas for all cancers or each diagnosis group. The travel time comparison yielded significant differences of 1.17 for all cancers and 2.57 for lymphomas (II).Conclusion Approximately 80% of the patients received treatment within their prefecture, although a few traveled long distances across regional blocks. We observed no differences in the mortality ratio between urban and rural areas, although significant differences were found in all cancers and one cancer in the travel burden comparison. These results highlight the need for continued evaluation of the increasing trend in patient travel burden and its impact on survival, as childhood cancer treatment has become centralized in Japan.

A Comparative Study on the Influence of Chinese and American Education Systems on Regional Economy

This paper explores the comparison of Chinese and U.S education systems, discussing the advantages and disadvantages, and these problems will lead to the regional economic difference. It highlights case studies and evaluates characters. The study concludes with the equal educational problem leading to the regional economic disparities. This study shows that college students choose to take student loans in order to enter good universities, and the impact of this is that they are more likely to work in cities with more developed industries after graduation, so as to get a higher salary to repay the student loans. For China, college students will be more inclined to stay in advanced cities, because living in these cities can not only get a higher salary, but also get more policy and education benefits for their next generation. However, as time goes by no matter in U.S or China, poorer cities will lose a lot of excellent talents, affecting the economic growth of these cities, and thus the degree of regional economic differentiation will gradually deepen. This study aims to explore the relationship between an equal education system and Regional economy. It hypothesizes that equal education systems lead to some loss of human resources and cause backward economic development.

The reproductive ecology of the Campo Flicker Colaptes campestris campestroides

ABSTRACT The Campo Flicker Colaptes campestris is a Neotropical woodpecker. Reports indicate breeding behaviour may vary regionally, as the northern subspecies (C. c. campestris) is a facultative cooperative breeder, but this is not reported for the southern C. c. campestroides. Also, this flicker can excavate or reuse cavities but whether cavity type impacts breeding success has not been assessed. The objectives of this study are to: (1) report breeding parameters of a southern flicker population in a natural woodland of central Argentina, (2) discuss differences from northern populations, (3) report cooperative breeding in the austral subspecies and (4) assess whether breeding success (e.g. number of fledglings, predation rates) and cavity features are related to cavity type (new vs. reused). We followed 55 nests (24 and 31 in new and reused cavities, respectively) over three breeding seasons (2015–2016, 2016–2017, 2017–2018). Neither reproductive parameters nor cavity measurements differed between cavity types. Ten breeding pairs (18%) had a third individual (i.e. formed a cooperative group) that collaborated with cavity excavation and incubation. Our results enlighten regional differences between populations of the Campo Flicker. We improve the knowledge on the link between new cavities and breeding success, providing a full description of the Campo Flicker nesting ecology, including the first evidence of cooperative breeding in this subspecies.