Backscattering Region Research Articles

Comparing VHF coherent scatter from the radar aurora with incoherent scatter and all‐sky auroral imagery

VHF coherent scatter radar observations of an auroral substorm over Alaska are analyzed in the context of multibeam incoherent scatter plasma density and drifts data and green‐line all‐sky optical imagery. Coherent scatter arises from Farley Buneman waves which are excited in theEregion whenever the convection electric field is greater than about 20 mV/m. Aperture synthesis radar imaging and other aspects of the methodology facilitate the precise spatial registration of the coherent scatter with coincident optical and incoherent scatter radar measurements. Discrete auroral arcs were found to separate diffuse regions of coherent backscatter and, sometimes, to align with the boundaries of those regions. At other times, auroral arcs and torches lined up adjacent to discrete, structured regions or radar backscatter. Drastic variations in the Doppler shifts of the coherent scatter from one side of the auroral forms to the other suggest the presence of field‐aligned currents. An empirical formula based on previous studies but adapted to account approximately for the effects of wave turning was used to estimate the convection electric field from the moments of the coherent scatter Doppler spectra. Line‐of‐sightF region plasma drift measurements from the Poker Flat Incoherent Scatter Radar (PFISR) were found to be in reasonable agreement with these convection field estimates. Reasons why the empirical formulas may be expected to hold are discussed.

Turbid Scene Enhancement Using Multi-Directional Illumination Fusion

Ambient light is strongly attenuated in turbid media. Moreover, natural light is often more highly attenuated in some spectral bands, relative to others. Hence, imaging in turbid media often relies heavily on artificial sources for illumination. Scenes irradiated by an off-axis single point source have enhanced local object shadow edges, which may increase object visibility. However, the images may suffer from severe nonuniformity, regions of low signal (being distant from the source), and regions of strong backscatter. On the other hand, simultaneously illuminating the scene from multiple directions increases the backscatter and fills-in shadows, both of which degrade local contrast. Some previous methods tackle backscatter by scanning the scene, either temporally or spatially, requiring a large number of frames. We suggest using a few frames, in each of which wide field scene irradiance originates from a different direction. This way, shadow contrast can be maintained and backscatter can be minimized in each frame, while the sequence at large has a wider, more spatially uniform illumination. The frames are then fused by post processing to a single, clearer image. We demonstrate significant visibility enhancement underwater using as little as two frames.

Circular depolarization ratios of single water droplets and finite ice circular cylinders: a modeling study

Abstract. Computations of the phase matrix elements for single water droplets and ice crystals in fixed orientations are presented to determine if circular depolarization δC is more accurate than linear depolarization for phase discrimination. T-matrix simulations were performed to calculate right-handed and left-handed circular depolarization ratios δ+C, respectively δ−C and to compare them with linear ones. Ice crystals are assumed to have a circular cylindrical shape where their surface-equivalent diameters range up to 5 μm. The circular depolarization ratios of ice particles were generally higher than linear depolarization and depended mostly on the particle orientation as well as their sizes. The fraction of non-detectable ice crystals (δ<0.05) was smaller considering a circular polarized light source, reaching 4.5%. However, water droplets also depolarized light circularly for scattering angles smaller than 179° and size parameters smaller than 6 at side- and backscattering regions. Differentiation between ice crystals and water droplets might be difficult for experiments performed at backscattering angles which deviate from 180° unlike LIDAR applications. Instruments exploiting the difference in the P44/P11 ratio at a scattering angle around 115° are significantly constrained in distinguishing between water and ice because small droplets with size parameters between 5 and 10 do cause very high circular depolarizations at this angle. If the absence of the liquid phase is confirmed, the use of circular depolarization in single particle detection is more sensitive and less affected by particle orientation.

High radar-backscatter regions on Antarctic sea-ice and their relation to sea-ice and snow properties and meteorological conditions

The temporal and spatial variability of sea-ice radar signatures in the Southern Ocean during late winter, spring and early summer from QuikSCAT data is presented. We observe a circumpolar and broad band of sea-ice close to the marginal ice zone that is characterized by very high radar backscatter. This feature is explained through detailed in situ observations of snow and sea-ice properties as well as in relation to meteorological conditions, which were derived from US National Center for Environmental Prediction (NCEP)/National Center for Atmospheric Research (NCAR) reanalysis data. Our results indicate that high backscatter regions are caused by metamorphous snow, which forms through re-freezing after short-term melt events. This process is connected with the episodic passes of low-pressure systems entraining warmer air from the north. South of the Antarctic Circumpolar Trough, sea-ice is not affected by this influence and shows spatially homogenous microwave signatures with low backscatter.

SU‐E‐T‐194: Accounting for Support Arm Backscatter in EPID‐Based IMRT QA

Purpose: To devise a method for IMRT QA using a Pinnacle model for the EPID response which accounts for non‐uniform backscatter from the support arm. Method: The method is based on a Pinnacle treatment planning system model. It relies on determining a correction matrix (CM) that multiplies the (flood‐field calibrated) EPID image to restore pixel response to backscatter and subsequently constructing a backscatter region within the Pinnacle model that reproduces the effect of backscatter from the EPID support arm. The CM is constructed from a series of profiles calculated as the ratio of modelled to acquired slit‐beam fields. Each slit beam is offset so that the series covers the entire EPID area. Slit beams are used to minimize the dependence of response to backscatter. The CM represents the flood‐field response of the EPID mounted on the support arm as if it had been calibrated in the absence of backscatter. An iterative fitting procedure is used to adjust the backscatter region in the Pinnacle model so that the modelled flood‐field response matches the CM. Results: As expected, arbitrary‐field EPID images multiplied by the CM agree well with Pinnacle model results incorporating the backscatter region. The method was tested for 10, 20, and 30 cm square fields and shown to reduce discrepancies between the Pinnacle calculation and EPID images from 3.3, 8.3 and 9.4 %, to 0.8, 2.2 and 1.1 % respectively for the three fields. Conclusions: A novel method for IMRT QA was developed whereby acquired EPID images are multiplied by a pre‐computed correction matrix and then compared to the response from a Pinnacle model which incorporates a non‐uniform backscatter region. The method is easy to use in clinical practice and does not require measurements involving the removal of the EPID from the support arm.

Comparison of time‐frequency distributions for target classification.

Time frequency representations characterize signals in the time‐frequency plane and can aid in the physical interpretation of backscattered chirps. However, these 2‐D representations force trade‐offs in resolution, computational efficiency, noise reduction, and cross‐term generation. We are mainly concerned with the ability of the transform to reject noise, but we are also concerned with the effect of the cross‐term artifacts that do not represent real phenomena on the ability to classify targets using machine learning approaches. First, strong backscatter returns available for a particular target were identified. In the cluttered field under study, this was accomplished from a synthetic aperture image of the field. The processing reported herein used these returns from each studied target to produce a partition of the time frequency plane that contained disjoint sets of time‐frequency regions. Each target was represented by a subset of these regions. To test the separability of the targets based on these subsets, random pings were selected from each target’s high backscatter region. These pings were then compared against the disjoint sets. This procedure was carried out with several different time‐frequency methods in order to determine the importance of the method’s resolution, noise reduction quality, and cross‐term artifacts, in producing robust time‐frequency plane partitions that may be used to classify targets. [This work was sponsored by the SERDP.]

Defect symmetry influence on electronic transport of zigzag nanoribbons

The electronic transport of zigzag-edged graphene nanoribbon (ZGNR) with local Stone-Wales (SW) defects is systematically investigated by first principles calculations. While both symmetric and asymmetric SW defects give rise to complete electron backscattering region, the well-defined parity of the wave functions in symmetric SW defects configuration is preserved. Its signs are changed for the highest-occupied electronic states, leading to the absence of the first conducting plateau. The wave function of asymmetric SW configuration is very similar to that of the pristine GNR, except for the defective regions. Unexpectedly, calculations predict that the asymmetric SW defects are more favorable to electronic transport than the symmetric defects configuration. These distinct transport behaviors are caused by the different couplings between the conducting subbands influenced by wave function alterations around the charge neutrality point.

Conductance and noise signatures of Majorana backscattering

We propose a conductance measurement to detect the backscattering of chiral Majorana edge states. Because normal and Andreev processes have equal probability for backscattering of a single chiral Majorana edge state, there is qualitative difference from backscattering of a chiral Dirac edge state, giving rise to half-integer Hall conductivity and decoupling of fluctuation in incoming and outgoing modes. The latter can be detected through thermal noise measurement. These experimental signatures of Majorana fermions are robust at finite temperature and do not require the size of the backscattering region to be mesoscopic.

Effect of N doping and Stone-Wales defects on the electronic properties of graphene nanoribbons

The effects of nitrogen substitutional doping in the Stone-Wales (SW) defect on the electronic transport properties of zigzag-edged graphene nanoribbon (ZGNR) are studied by using density functional theory combined with nonequilibrium Green’s function. The transformation energies of all doped nanostructures are evaluated in terms of total energies and, furthermore, it is found that the impurity placed on the center of the ribbon is the most energetically favorable site. Nitrogen substitution gives rise to a complete electron backscattering region in doped configurations, and the location of which is dependent on the doping sites. The electronic and transport properties of doped ZGNRs are discussed. Our results suggest that modification of the electronic properties of ZGNR with topological defects by substitutional doping might not be significant for some doping sites.

Lidar monitoring of regions of intense backscatter with poorly defined boundaries

The upper height of a region of intense backscatter with a poorly defined boundary between this region and a region of clear air above it is found as the maximal height where aerosol heterogeneity is detectable, that is, where it can be discriminated from noise. The theoretical basis behind the retrieval technique and the corresponding lidar-data-processing procedures are discussed. We also show how such a technique can be applied to one-directional measurements. Examples of typical results obtained with a scanning lidar in smoke-polluted atmospheres and experimental data obtained in an urban atmosphere with a vertically pointing lidar are presented.

Solar near-relativistic electron observations as a proof of a back-scatter region beyond 1 AU during the 2000 February 18 event

Aims. We study the near-relativistic (NR; > 30 keV) electron event observed on 2000 February 18 by near-Earth spacecraft. Previous works have explained this event by assuming that the propagation of NR electrons is essentially “scatter-free” at heliocentric radial distances r 1 AU, and that beyond 1 AU particles are “back-scattered” by magnetic field irregularities.Methods. Our aim is to re-visit this interplanetary propagation scenario and infer the injection profile at the Sun by fitting the electron directional intensities observed by the Advanced Composition Explorer .Results. We use a Monte Carlo transport model to explore this approach. We assume that the interplanetary magnetic field is an Archimedean spiral and that the interplanetary transport of NR electrons is characterized by a large radial mean free path ( > 0.5 AU) and anisotropic pitch-angle scattering for r AU, and a small radial mean free path ( 0.5 AU) and isotropic scattering in the back-scatter region.Conclusions. The event cannot be explained without assuming a back-scatter region beyond 1 AU. The best fit is obtained by assuming = 3.2 AU in the inner heliosphere and a back-scatter region characterized by a small mean free path = 0.2 AU located beyond 1.2 AU.

Real Time Monitoring of the Strain Evolution during Rapid Heat Treatment of Steel Samples by Means of Synchrotron X-Ray Diffraction

An innovative experimental set-up for fast X-ray diffraction analysis on polycrystalline materials has been established at the synchrotron radiation facility ANKA (Karlsruhe, Germany). Key components of the set-up are two fast microstrip line detectors arranged symmetrically around the incident beam in the backscatter region. The capabilities of the set-up are tested by means of in-situ heat treatment experiments on SAE 4140 steel samples. In this feasibility study the heat was introduced by means of either a heating stage or by means of a gas tungsten arc welding torch. It will be shown that the evolution of thermal and elastic lattice strains can be monitored at a sampling rate of up to 4 Hz at a bending-magnet synchrotron beamline. Since the sampling rate may be increased further at a insertion device synchrotron beamline providing higher photon flux, our setup appears to be feasible for monitoring laser treatments in real time.

Identification of cryovolcanism on Titan using fuzzy cognitive maps

Future planetary exploration of Titan will require higher degrees of on-board automation, including autonomous determination of sites where the probability of significant scientific findings is the highest. In this paper, a novel Artificial Intelligence (AI) method for the identification and interpretation of sites that yield the highest potential of cryovolcanic activity is presented. We introduce the theory of fuzzy cognitive maps (FCM) as a tool for the analysis of remotely collected data in planetary exploration. A cognitive model embedded in a fuzzy logic framework is constructed via the synergistic interaction of planetary scientists and AI experts. As an application example, we show how FCM can be employed to solve the challenging problem of recognizing cryovolcanism from Synthetic Aperture Radar (SAR) Cassini data. The fuzzy cognitive map is constructed using what is currently known about cryovolcanism on Titan and relies on geological mapping performed by planetary scientists to interpret different locales as cryovolcanic in nature. The system is not conceived to replace the human scientific interpretation, but to enhance the scientists’ ability to deal with large amounts of data, and it is a first step in designing AI systems that will be able, in the future, to autonomously make decisions in situations where human analysis and interpretation is not readily available or could not be sufficiently timely. The proposed FCM is tested on Cassini radar data to show the effectiveness of the system in reaching conclusions put forward by human experts and published in the literature. Four tests are performed using the Ta SAR image (October 2004 fly-by). Two regions (i.e. Ganesa Macula and the lobate high backscattering region East of Ganesa) are interpreted by the designed FCM as exhibiting cryovolcanism in agreement with the initial interpretation of the regions by Stofan et al. (2006). Importantly, the proposed FCM is shown to be flexible and adaptive as new data and knowledge are acquired during the course of exploration. Subsequently, the FCM has been modified to include topographic information derived from SAR stereo data. With this additional information, the map concludes that Ganesa Macula is not a cryovolcanic region. In conclusion, the FCM methodology is shown to be a critical and powerful component of future autonomous robotic spacecraft (e.g., orbiter(s), balloon(s), surface/lake lander(s), rover(s)) that will be deployed for the exploration of Titan.

Shrub-blown time variability in attenuation and scattering at cellular frequencies

The interest in the electromagnetic behaviour of shrubs is growing in parallel with the extension of radio communication networks and the need for better coverage planning tools. When a tree is present in the vicinity of a radio link, a scattering process is likely to be induced in the propagation environment. Even though the trunk of the tree is usually kept stationary, the wind blowing on the canopy will force its leaves to oscillate, which induces time variability in the propagation channel. This study presents results of a measurement campaign aimed at the characterisation of the propagation channel time variability in vegetation media, at cellular wireless frequency bands. The results have shown that the presence of vegetation media will contribute to the received signal level enhancement, particularly in the side- and back-scattering regions, as opposed to the significant attenuation caused by absorption and scattering, in the forward-scattering region. Finally, the time variability was observed to significantly decrease the dispersive effects in vegetation media. The experimental results presented in this study provide an improvement in the electromagnetic modelling of the scattering around isolated trees.

Analysis of the KK-distribution with medium grazing angle sea-clutter

Robust maritime surveillance with radar requires an accurate description of the backscatter from the sea. An estimated probability distribution of the backscatter is commonly used to determine the threshold for separating targets from clutter at a given false alarm rate. Data collected at medium to high grazing angles by the Defence Science Technology Organisation (DSTO) Ingara fully polarimetric X-band radar demonstrate that the commonly used K-distribution is not always adequate for modelling the probability distribution. This is especially the case for the horizontal polarisation and in regions of high backscatter where target detection can be a problem. An alternative proposed as a more accurate model in this region is known as the KK-distribution. The analysis presented in this study describes this model with the addition of multiple looks and a thermal noise component to produce greater accuracy in the mean and underlying shape. The threshold required to achieve a constant false alarm rate is then studied and compared with the K-distribution.

Persistent iceberg groundings in the western Weddell Sea, Antarctica

We use the time-average of a series of satellite synthetic aperture radar (SAR) images from 2005 to 2007 to identify grounded icebergs in the western Weddell Sea. Satellite laser altimetry along repeated ground tracks confirms that regions of high mean backscatter are associated with stationary, tabular icebergs. The altimeter data also provide iceberg freeboard, from which we infer maximum ice draft assuming the lightly-grounded limit and a two-layer density model consistent with a source at Filchner–Ronne Ice Shelf. The maximum iceberg draft agrees very well with the ocean depth at a point where the bathymetry is well constrained by ship soundings. However, for an extensive region near 71°S, south of Larsen C Ice Shelf, the maximum grounding depth for several icebergs reveals the ocean to be locally more than 200 m shallower than in bathymetry products. This previously uncharted bank is expected to have a profound effect on the northward flow of the western Weddell Gyre and the cross-slope transport of offshore warm deep water towards the eastern Antarctic Peninsula ice shelves. Passive microwave data also show that sea-ice concentration is reduced in the vicinity of this group of grounded icebergs, indicating an iceberg influence on ocean/atmosphere heat and freshwater exchanges.

Optical, radar, and magnetic observations of magnetosheath plasma capture during a positive IMF <I>B<sub>z</sub></I> impulse

Abstract. We present a multi-instrument study of the ionospheric response to a northward turning of the IMF. The observations were made in the near-noon (11:00 MLT) sector on Svalbard (at 75° MLAT). The data set includes auroral observations, ionospheric flows obtained from the EISCAT and CUTLASS radars, the spectral width of the HF radar backscatter, particle precipitation and plasma flow data from the DMSP F13 satellite, and Pc1 frequency band pulsations observed by induction magnetometers. Careful collocation of all the observations has been made with the HF radar backscatter located by a ray-tracing procedure utilizing the elevation angle of arrival of the signals and an ionospheric plasma density profile. Prior to IMF turning northward, three auroral arcs were observed at the poleward boundary of the closed llbl, inside the llbl, and in the equatorward part of the llbl, respectively. The northward IMF turning was accompanied by enhanced HF radar returns with a broad Doppler spectrum collocated with the arcs. The auroral arcs shifted poleward whereas the backscatter region moved in the opposite direction, which is consistent, respectively, with reconnection beyond the cusp and the capturing of magnetosheath plasma during northward IMF. Locally, magnetic noise enhancement in the Pc1 frequency band occurred simultaneously with the anomalous radar backscatter, and the absence of such signals at more remote magnetic observatories indicates a local generation of the Pc1 turbulence, which is collocated with the radar backscatter. Finally, we discuss possible interpretation errors which may be caused by limited observational data.

The effect of subgrid-scale models on the near wall vortices: A priori tests

Direct numerical simulation of a turbulent channel flow at Reτ=180 is used to analyze the resolved enstrophy dissipation caused by the subgrid-scale (SGS) models. The SGS enstrophy dissipation attains a minimum (forward scatter) at about y+≈8 and a backscatter region for y+<6, and is correlated with the high-speed streaks. A priori tests show that in the buffer layer, of all the models considered, the dynamic Smagorinsky, filtered structure function, and scale-similarity models display the smallest amount of resolved enstrophy dissipation, whereas the Smagorinsky and mixed models are the most dissipative.

Interrelating angular scattering characteristics to internal electric fields for wavelength-scale spherical particles

The origin of negative polarization observed in the backscattering region of wavelength-scale spherical particles has been attributed to surface waves. We demonstrate that the internal-field components have a more prominent role in producing this phenomenon. The internal field of spherical particles is computed for different size parameters and refractive indices. The effect of the internal field on the scattered field is studied by modifying the field components of the discretized internal field of the particle. The incident field is assumed to be X -polarized and to propagate in the direction of the Z -axis. For the different internal-field cases, we tabulate the asymmetry parameters of the phase functions, and the so-called polarization norms and asymmetry parameters. We show that both the Z - and X -component of the internal field cause negative polarization, the Z -component directly and the X -component through constructive interference between the contributions from different parts of the particle interior. The former component has a more pronounced influence on the overall polarization, which is readily seen in the polarization norm and asymmetry parameter becoming predominantly more positive for all parameters investigated. The latter component dominates the negative linear polarization close to the backscattering direction and is additionally seen to be responsible for the backscattering peak.

Measurements of differential cross sections in the backscattering region

A review of experimental techniques which enable detection of electrons scattered in the backward direction, with an emphasis on recent developments in the magnetic angle-changing technique is presented. Results of measurements of differential cross sections for elastic electron scattering in the range of large scattering angles in rare gases and small molecules are discussed and compared with selected theoretical investigations.